The  Makin. 
of  a  Town 

Frank  L.  McVey 


The  Making  of  a  Town 


The 

Making  of  a  Town 


BY 

FRANK  L.  McVEY 

President  of  the  University  of  North  Dakota 

Professor  of  Economics,  University  of  Minnesota,   1896-1907 

Chairman,  Minnesota  Tax  Commission,  1907-1909 

Author,  Modern  Industrialism,  Railroad  Transportation, 

History  and  Government  of  Minnesota,  The  Populist  Movement 


CHICAGO 

A.  C.  McCLURG  &  CO. 
191? 


Copyright 

A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 
1913 


Published  May,  1913 


W.   F.   HALL  PRINTING  COMPANY,  CHICAGO 


To 

M.  S.  M. 


261243 


MANY  things  have  been  said  in  books  and 
periodicals  about  cities,  but  very  little  has 
been  written  on  the  problems  of  the  smaller  towns. 
Still,  the  difficulties  in  these  places  are  great;  more- 
over, the  meeting  of  them  is  checked  by  lack  of  lead- 
ership, opportunity  to  find  the  written  material  upon 
them  in  near-by  libraries,  and  by  the  absence  of  a 
background  of  understanding  and  purpose.  Some 
experience  in  town  building  and  a  close  relationship 
to  the  problems  of  the  smaller  places,  have  brought 
me  to  the  view  that  a  statement  of  town  problems 
might  be  of  assistance.  In  view  of  that  need,  this 
book  has  been  prepared.  It  does  not  pretend  to  solve 
all  of  the  town  problems,  but  I  trust  it  brings  to  light 
some  of  the  more  essential  features  of  town  growth 
and  the  need  of  careful  planning.  If  this  point  has 
been  clearly  put,  the  book  serves  its  purpose. 

FRANK  L.  McVEY 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    TOWN  BUILDING  AND  COOPERATION       .     .  i 

II    THE  PLANNING  OF  THE  TOWN      ....  19 

III  THE  FIRST  FUNDAMENTAL — HEALTH     .    .  41 

IV  THE  SECOND  FUNDAMENTAL — SCHOOLS      .  61 
V    THE  THIRD  FUNDAMENTAL — MORALS     .    .  85 

VI    THE  FOURTH  FUNDAMENTAL — BUSINESS    .  103 

VII    THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  TOWN 121 

VIII     GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION    .     .     .  137 

IX    ORGANIZATIONS  AND  WHAT  THEY  CAN  Do 

FOR  THE  TOWN 159 

X    ADVERTISING  THE  TOWN ,  177 

XI    THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  TOWN 195 

REFERENCES 213 

INDEX 219 


TOWN  BUILDING  AND  COOPERATION 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  TOWN 

CHAPTER  I 

TOWN    B'UILDING    AND    COOPERATION 

COMMUNITY-BUILDING  is  a  difficult  and 
laborious  process  at  best.  It  requires  con- 
fidence in  the  future,  the  cooperation  of  men  and 
women,  and  the  bringing  together  of  many  elements 
to  make  it  a  success.  Under  our  American  concept 
of  individualism,  community-building  has  often  been 
regarded  as  individual  in  character.  There  has 
been  little  emphasis  laid  on  the  cooperative  side,  and 
practically  no  recognition  has  been  given  to  the 
contributions  of  the  social  factors  to  town-building. 
It  is  true  that  in  many  towns  strong  men  have  erected 
buildings,  established  banks,  created  mills  and  ele- 
vators, and  done  a  great  deal  that  has  assisted 
materially  the  growth  of  the  community.  While  all 
of  this  is  desirable  and  worth  the  while,  in  itself  it 
cannot  create  a  town  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term. 

1 


2  The  Making  of  a  Town 

The  individual  has  identified  the  success  of  the  town 
in  these  instances  with  his  own  commercial  advan- 
tage, and  has  overlooked  the  important  fact  that  a 
town  has  a  conscience,  point  of  view,  and  attitude 
of  its  own.  This  spirit  of  the  town  must  be  alive 
to  the  town's  condition,  ready  and  alert  as  an  indi- 
cator of  the  character  of  the  general  citizenship  to 
take  on  problems  and  difficulties. 

Community  view  and  individual  interest,  more- 
over, do  not  always  coincide.  The  basis  of  the 
opposition  on  the  part  of  some  men  to  town  prog- 
ress usually  is  not  far  to  seek.  Many  times  it  is  due 
to  misunderstanding,  to  idle  gossip,  or  to  competition 
in  a  limited  field.  Thus  the  contest  for  patrons  may 
take  on  all  the  bitterness  of  a  hostile  strife  in  a  gold 
camp,  and  end  in  merchants  having  nothing  to 
do  with  each  other  in  a  business  or  social  way. 
Instead  of  ignoring  such  a  situation,  some  of  the 
members  of  the  community  take  sides.  As  a  con- 
sequence cliques  are  formed.  This  results  in  a 
divisional  town,  which  continues  to  lose  ground, 
because  there  can  be  no  centralization  of  interests. 
If  one  side  favors  a  proposition  the  other  is  opposed 
to  it.  Nothing  deadlier  could  exist  than  just  such 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation  3 

a  condition.  Mark  Twain  gave  to  the  world  a 
number  of  years  ago  his  "  Story  of  the  Man  Who 
Corrupted  Hadleysburg."  It  can  hardly  be  repeated, 
even  in  outline,  but  the  complete  overturning  of  the 
virtues  of  its  citizens  was  due  wholly  to  suspicion 
and  overreaching  proclivities.  Where  else  could 
it  have  happened  but  in  the  small  community? 

Sometimes  the  strong  man  of  the  town  insists, 
through  the  various  agencies  of  church,  school  board, 
and  council,  that  his  views  shall  prevail.  Thus  the 
spirit  of  thrift  is  talked  and  urged  by  him  not  so  much 
for  the  welfare  of  individuals  as  that  tenants  may  pay 
rents  and  debtors  settle  promptly  their  obligations. 
.If  the  theology  of  his  church  maintains  this  view,  he 
is  strongly  set  against  the  new  thought  that  might 
in  any  way  loosen  the  bond  of  obligation  and  throw 
doubts  on  the  rendering  to  Caesar  what  is  due.  So 
the  teacher  is  expected  to  inculcate  the  doctrines  of 
ownership  and  the  right  to  charge  what  the  traffic 
will  bear,  while  the  town  council  is  instructed  to  turn 
contracts  over  to  those  who  are  big  taxpayers  and 
consequent  benefactors  of  the  community.  It  is 
hard  to  get  a  man  of  such  views  to  accept  the  social 
concept  of  a  town's  development,  because  his  in- 


The  Making  of  a  Town 


terest  and  his  thought  have  all  centered  about  in- 
dividual effort. 

Besides  this  deterring  element  of  individualism  is 
another  of  even  more  seriousness,  which  creeps  into 
every  community  as  it  takes  on  added  importance 
and  increase  of  population.  The  old-time  neigh- 
borliness  of  the  early  days  of  the  village,  when  the 
difference  between  the  well-to-do  and  the  poorer 
members  of  the  community  was  merely  a  difference 
of  physical  comfort  won  by  the  sweat  of  the  brow, 
has  disappeared  and  been  superseded  by  many  artifi- 
cial distinctions  in  family  and  social  life.  Inherited 
wealth  makes  possible  the  enjoyment  of  pleasures 
and  more  intimate  touch  with  the  outside  world;  and 
as  wealth  is  concentrated,  social  distinctions  arise  and 
class  lines  appear  as  a  factor  in  the  town  problems. 
This  condition  is  noticeable  in  the  utilization  of  the 
most  attractive  locations  in  the  town  for  the  best 
residences  and  the  creation  of  a  "  desirable  sec- 
tion "  to  which  those  able  to  afford  it  move. 
Churches,  too,  come  to  be  designated  as  fashionable 
churches,  and  the  town  in  its  increase  of  population 
is  marked  by  distinctions  that  affect  the  "get-to- 
gether "  spirit  of  the  place. 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation  $ 

In  sections  of  the  country  where  new  towns  are 
in  the  process  of  building  the  inhabitants  are  free 
from  many  of  the  traditions  of  older  places.  The 
newcomers  who  settle  in  the  place  are  younger, 
more  open  to  new  ideas  and  ready  to  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  cooperation.  This  condition  is  worth  much 
in  the  building  of  a  town.  '*  The  veteran,  John 
Bigelow,  in  an  address  read  at  the  dedication  of  a 
museum  presented  by  him  to  his  native  town  in 
Massachusetts,  declared  that  *  no  people  in  town, 
village,  or  city  can  be  really  prosperous  or  happy 
without  being  brought  together  frequently  to  share 
common  amusements  and  recreations  and  exchanges 
of  opinion;  it  is  such  attractions  that  have  contrib- 
uted in  a  great  degree  to  make  Paris,  London,  Flor- 
ence, and  Rome  pilgrim  shrines.1  In  commenting 
on  this  thought  the  Philadelphia  Press  said  that 
it  is  the  opinion  of  a  man  of  culture,  of  keen  obser- 
vation, and  of  experience  through  a  long  life  extend- 
ing beyond  ninety  years.  It  is  not  new,  for  it  has 
been  felt  in  almost  every  community  at  one  time  or 
another,  but  it  has  such  obvious  truth  and  force  that 
it  is  worth  reviewing  any  time  and  all  the  time. 
Harmony  of  thought  and  purpose  and  action  have 


The  Making  of  a  Town 


prospered  many  a  city.  We  have  had,  perhaps,  the 
best  demonstrations  of  this  in  western  cities,  par- 
ticularly on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  there  has  been 
marvelous  growth  of  the  new  municipalities.  Every- 
body helps  to  push  the  city  along  with  all  its  interests, 
and  they,  all  work  to  one  definite  end,  not  pushing 
and  pulling  against  each  other." 

"  Know  your  city  "  is  the  motto  of  a  new  move- 
ment but  recently  sprung  into  existence  and  now 
seen  to  its  best  advantage  in  some  of  our  larger 
municipalities.  Knowing  your  town  has  reference 
not  only  to  its  good  sides,  but  to  its  weak  points  as 
well.  It  is  an  attempt  to  clearly  recognize  the  pros- 
pects, the  difficulties,  and  the  evils  that  exist  in  a 
community  and  to  get  at  the  social  consciousness  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  city  of  Boston  decided  to 
create  a  great  exhibition  to  be  held  in  the  year  1915. 
The  purpose  of  this  event  was  not  to  present  in 
glaring  figures  the  commerce  of  Boston,  or  her  miles 
of  harbor,  or  the  amount  of  sidewalk,  sewers,  or 
paving  that  she  possesses,  but  rather  to  show  what 
is  needed  to  make  Boston  the  most  perfect  city  in 
the  world.  To  this  end  committees  went  to  work  to 
ascertain  the  economic  basis  of  the  city,  its  social 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation  7 

aims  and  purposes,  what  it  needed  in  the  way  of 
public  buildings  and  improvements,  how  the  parks 
and  the  water  system  might  be  bettered;  in  fact, 
to  find  out  what  was  lacking  to  make  a  complete 
city.  Another  city  on  the  other  side  of  the  country 
determined  to  do  not  only  the  thing  which  Boston 
has  done,  namely,  to  talk  about  what  they  ought  to 
be,  but  actually  to  accomplish  it.  Consequently, 
great  efforts  were  made  to  better  the  harbor,  to  ex- 
tend the  park  system,  and  to  improve  the  city  gener- 
ally. A  great  manufacturing  city  in  the  center  of 
the  continent  furnishes  an  example  of  a  municipality 
that  studied  its  weak  side.  It  attempted  to  find  out 
the  conditions  under  which  its  workers  were  living, 
the  evils  with  which  they  were  faced  from  day  to 
day,  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  region  in  which 
the  people  lived  and  worked,  and  what  the  city  had 
to  offer  to  raise  the  general  welfare. 

These  three  great  cities  and  their  purposes  might 
well  serve  as  examples  for  smaller  communities. 
There  is  no  reason  why  any  community  should  not 
face  its  future  in  black  and  white.  This  means  the 
putting  down  on  paper  what  it  has  on  the  credit  side 
in  the  form  of  good  schools,  streets,  parks,  etc.,  as 


8  The  Making  of  a  Town 

well  as  enumerating  the  deficiencies  in  police  service, 
health  regulations,  proper  amusements,  tenements, 
and  the  like.  The  adoption  of  a  town  motto  ex- 
pressive of  hope  and  paraphrasing  the  relation  of 
the  town  to  the  community  about  it  would  tend  to 
concentrate  the  activity  of  citizens  and  give  them  a 
definite  purpose  in  their  work  for  their  community. 
It  seems  necessary  to  give  tangible  form  to  propa- 
ganda by  unifying  and  enthusing  a  movement 
through  the  use  of  a  motto ;  thus : "  Know  your  City," 
"A  Clean  City,"  "A  Good  Town  to  Live  In,"  ex- 
press  the  wish  of  a  movement  to  better  things. 
Town-building,  however,  here  and  there  has  ad- 
vanced beyond  this  phase  and  has  sought  to  lay  a 
foundation  in  wider  knowledge  of  conditions  before 
attempting  some  special  line  of  activity.  Hence 
the  "town  survey,"  sometimes  called  the  "social 
survey,"  has  been  inaugurated  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  at  the  facts  before  an  attempt  is  made  to 
generalize  about  the  problem. 

Under  the  old  method  a  great  deal  of  the  special 
work  came  to  naught  because  there  was  no  adequate 
basis  for  the  conclusions  of  the  committees  in  charge. 
Such  a  change  in  attitude  has  brought  the  student  of 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation  9 

town  problems  to  the  front  and  relegated  the  spell- 
binders to  the  rear,  for  the  reason  that  a  survey  re- 
quires knowledge  of  economic  and  social  principles 
as  well  as  how  to  apply  them.  It  is  due  further  to 
the  recognition  that  town  development  is  not  wholly 
a  matter  of  chance,  but  one  that  rests  upon  ascer- 
tainable  principles;  thus,  increase  in  size  and  wealth 
means  division  of  population,  the  introduction  of 
social  cleavage,  and  greater  difficulty  in  maintaining 
town  unity;  the  growth  of  a  town  along  economic 
lines  introduces  disturbing  elements  in  the  policing, 
financing,  and  managing  of  a  town  organization;  at 
the  same  time  this  progress  will  throw  upon  churches, 
schools,  and  charitable  societies  a  more  difficult 
problem  than  before.  In  each  of  these  groups  of 
problems  a  knowledge  of  facts  is  presupposed  be- 
fore any  solution  can  be  suggested.  This  means  a 
survey. 

Such  a  survey  may  well  begin  with  an  examination 
of  the  town's  location,  geographical  and  economic, 
to  be  followed  by  careful  study  of  conditions  in  many 
lines  of  social  and  economic  activity.  For  guidance 
of  those  who  are  in  earnest  the  following  outline  is 
offered  as  a  suggestion: 


io  The  Making  of  a  Town 

OUTLINE  OF  TOWN  SURVEY 

I.   LOCATION 

1.  Geographic 

a.  Character  of  topography 

b.  Nature  of  soil,  drainage  and  water  supply 

c.  Collection   of   maps   and   plats    showing   early 

growth 

2.  Economic 

a.  Railroad    connections,    shipping    and    trackage 

facilities 

b.  Distance  from  competing  towns  and  the  nature 

of  the  competition 

c.  The  wagon  roadways,  their  condition  and  con- 

venience 

II.   THE  POPULATION 

1.  Number,  origin  and  distribution  in  town 

2.  Race,  religious  and  class  antagonisms 

3.  Standards  of  living  and  wages  paid 

4.  Conditions  of  employment 
III.   SOCIAL  INSTITUTIONS 

1.  Recreational 

a.  Outdoors:    parks,    playgrounds,    public    baths, 

open  air  concerts,  winter  sports 

b.  Indoors:    theaters,    gymnasiums,    dance    halls, 

bowling  alleys,  places  of  amusement 

c.  The  coordination  and  direction  of  these 

2.  Social 

a.  Clubs  —  social  clubs,  boys'  clubs,  etc. 

b.  Restaurants,  saloons 

c.  Lodges,  labor  unions 

d.  Entertainments    and    amusements,    nature   and 

character  of 

e.  Vice,  nature  and  character  of 

3.  Educational 

a.    Schools  —  public  and  private;   the  conduct  of 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation         II 


them  and  adaptation  to  town  needs.     Con- 
tinuation schools 

b.  Higher   education  —  colleges,  technical    schools 

c.  Libraries,  reading  rooms  and  book  circulation 

d.  Lectures,  institutes 

e.  Newspapers,     periodicals     and     publications  — 

influence  of 

f.  Fine  arts  —  music,  concerts,  art  gallery 
4.    Religious  and  charitable  organizations 

a.  Churches  —  number,     denominations,     member- 

ship, attendance 

b.  Sunday  schools  and  work  of 

c.  Charitable  work  carried  on  —  associated  chari- 

ties; Salvation  army;  cooperation  between; 
private  philanthropy  and  question   of  poor 
relief 
IV.    GOVERNMENT 

1.  Management  —  character     of     government,     political, 

business  or  social 

2.  Work  of  departments 

a.  Police 

b.  Fire 

c.  Health 

d.  Recreation  and  parks 

e.  Construction  and  public  works 

3.  Utilities  —  what  they  are;  how  managed;  character  of 

service  and  cost 

4.  Financial  —  taxes,  assessment  of  property,  expenditure 

of  funds;  proper  audit  and  publicity  of  accounts 

5.  Reformatory    and    eleemosynary  —  jails,    almshouses, 

poor    department,    juvenile    court,    hospitals,    dis- 
pensaries 
V.   CONCLUSIONS 

1.  The  form  the  conclusions  should  take 

2.  Distribution  of  population  on  basis  of  income,  living 

conditions  and  housing  facilities 


12  The  Making  of  a  Town 

3.  Is  the  town  filling  its  function  as  an  economic  agent? 

4.  Has  the  town  provided  adequate  means  of  guarding 

the  health  of  its  citizens:  (a)  in  water  supply, 
(b)  sewerage,  (c)  housing,  (d)  care  of  contagious 
diseases? 

5.  Is  the  government  efficient,  honest  and  economical  ?  In 

what  respects  can  it  be  bettered? 

6  Do  the  children  have  adequate  educational  facilities? 
Have  the  problems  of  retardation  and  truancy  been 
solved  ? 

7.  What  social  institutions  exist?    What  is  their  value? 

8.  Are   the   provisions    for   recreation   and   amusement 

sufficient  to  meet  the  aesthetic  and  ethical  wants  of 
the  community?  If  not,  what  provisions  can  be 
made  to  meet  the  needs? 

9.  Is  vice  subjugated  and  the  elements  making  for  it 

subordinated?  Are  there  real  efforts  made  to  keep 
the  town  clean  and  on  a  high  moral  basis;  do 
churches,  schools,  police  and  commercial  clubs 
cooperate  to  this  end? 

10.  What  plans  are  being  made  for  a  better  town  in  the 

matters  of  planning,  recreation,  education  and 
business? 

11.  Maps  and  charts  should  be  made  to  show  graphically 

the  facts  gathered  in  the  survey. 

Enough  has  been  said  on  the  question  of  a  sur- 
vey to  open  the  mind  of  the  intelligent  citizen,  and 
to  suggest  as  well,  that  town  planning  and  town 
drifting  are  two  widely  divergent  things.  The  first 
presupposes  knowledge,  interest,  and  purpose;  the 
latter  is  the  point  of  view  that  it  is  nobody's  business, 
based  upon  the  fallacious  doctrine  that  a  good  town 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation         13 

is  bound  to  come  out  all  right  of  its  own  accord  in 
the  long  run.  But  nothing  happens  by  mere  chance ; 
a  town  is  what  it  is  in  the  course  of  a  half  century 
because  of  economic  and  social  conditions,  coupled 
with  the  exercise  of  intelligence,  energy,  foresighted- 
ness,  and  cooperative  spirit  on  the  part  of  the  citi- 
zens in  solving  the  problems. 

In  the  pages  of  this  book  it  is  proposed  to  con- 
sider the  more  important  things  that  make  for  better 
towns.  The  reader  will  undoubtedly  accept  the  view 
that  some  of  these  are  more  fundamental  than  others 
and  for  purposes  of  discussion  may  be  regarded  as 
basic.  As  the  author  views  the  matter,  the  topics 
health,  education,  morals,  and  business  would  in- 
clude in  their  wider  application  most  that  is  vital  to 
the  community.  In  fact,  they  may  be  referred  to  as 
the  fundamentals  of  community  growth  and  their 
treatment  will  necessitate  the  use  of  a  chapter  for 
each  one.  A  brief  description  here  of  the  terms 
and  what  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with  them 
should  facilitate  their  presentation  in  pages  farther 
on. 

i.  The  first  fundamental  has  just  been  said  to 
be  health.  Its  consideration  brings  the  town  face  to 


14  The  Making  of  a  Town 

face  with  sanitary  conditions,  the  disposal  of  waste, 
garbage,  sewage,  the  securing  of  good  water,  the 
ventilation  of  schoolhouses,  and  the  medical  inspec- 
tion of  school  children. 

2.  Education  has  been  made  almost  a  fetish  in 
American  communities,  but  it  involves  so  much  that 
any  progressive  community  does  not  hesitate  to  lend 
every  influence  it  can  exercise  to  have  a  modern 
school.     The  general  tone  of  the  community  is  re- 
flected in  the  school;  in  consequence,  the  problems 
of  support,  maintenance,  and  direction  are  unusually 
important. 

3.  The  moral  atmosphere  of  the  community  is 
the  third  fundamental.     A  town  is  attractive,  as  a 
general  thing,  in  accordance  with  its  moral  atmos- 
phere.    This  involves  its  attitude  toward  saloons, 
the  tone  of  the  amusements,  the  enforcement  of  law, 
and  the  part  which  is  played  by  school  and  church 
as  moral  agents  in  holding  young  people  to  higher 
ideals.    The  amusements  are  closely  allied  with  the 
moral  situation,  and  especially  is  this  true  in  the 
smaller  communities,  which  are  rarely  visited  by 
lecturers,  musical  organizations  or  theatrical  com- 
panies.     Mental  stimulus   and  moral  outlook  are 


Town  Building  and  Cooperation         15 

furnished  oftentimes  by  instruction,  and  this 
problem  is  one  of  the  most  serious  the  small  town 
has  to  consider. 

4.  A  further  fundamental  is  business.  It  is  the 
foundation  of  the  town  and  consequently  important. 
There  are  always  conflicting  forces  at  work  against 
the  development  of  business  in  a  community,  seen 
sometimes  in  too  much  competition,  in  too  high 
prices,  in  lack  of  advertising  or  a  clear  perception 
of  the  problem  which  confronts  the  community. 
Many  villages  drift  from  condition  to  condition, 
taking  each  failure  to  arrive  as  an  evidence  of  the 
hostile  attitude  of  Providence  toward  them.  This 
is  the  situation  that  will  obtain  unless  counteracted 
by  the  intelligent  cooperation  of  the  men  of  the 
town  with  each  other.  Business  conditions  generally 
are  changing  so  rapidly  that  adherence  to  old  views 
may  leave  the  town  behind  in  the  race  for  supremacy 
in  the  district,  unless  resort  is  had  to  joint  action 
through  the  medium  of  organization.  Thus  far  the 
commercial  club  has  been  the  best  medium  for 
securing  common  opinion  and  common  action. 

Besides  the  features  of  town  organization  men- 
tioned thus  far  in  this  outline  of  the  book's  purpose, 


1 6  The  Making  of  a  Town 

there  are  other  phases  of  town  life  which  will  be 
given  consideration  in  the  remaining  chapters;  such 
as  administration  and  government,  including  the 
question  of  taxation,  the  activities  of  clubs  and  or- 
ganizations, the  town  hotel  and  the  future  of  the 
community.  The  point  of  view  from  which  these 
interesting  topics  will  be  considered  is  that  of  the 
town  as  a  community  of  common  interests.  The 
town  is  a  social  organism.  The  conduct  of  its  af- 
fairs should  be  marked  by  loyalty,  intelligence,  effi- 
ciency, willingness  to  spend  money,  and  insistence 
upon  results,  for  the  very  reason  that  it  is  not  a 
private  concern,  but  a  social  organization,  involving 
the  interests  of  thousands  of  people. 

A  few  years  ago  individualism  was  rampant.  The 
emphasis  was  upon  competition  as  the  soul  of  trade, 
and  because  of  the  opposition  engendered,  pulling 
together  was  nearly  impossible.  Little  by  little  the 
municipality  has  begun  to  understand  that  very 
nearly  anything  is  possible  when  citizens  work  to- 
gether; while  the  concept  of  community  values,  due 
to  the  presence  of  a  population  in  a  limited  area,  is 
breaking  slowly  upon  the  minds  of  men  as  a  means 
by  which  the  social  needs  of  the  community  may  be 
financed. 


THE  PLANNING  OF  THE  TOWN 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  PLANNING  OF  THE  TOWN 

IN  the  edition  of  the  London  Times  for  Septem- 
ber i,  1911,  a  brief  article  appeared  upon  the 
proposed  capital  of  Australia.  A  site  some  seventy 
miles  from  the  eastern  coast  line,  in  New  South 
Wales,  at  Yass  Canderra,  has  been  selected,  and  it 
is  expected  that  there  will  be  established  the  per- 
manent seat  of  government,  where  the  federal  par- 
liament will  meet  and  the  commonwealth  legislation 
be  enacted.  In  time,  there  will  be  built  a  par- 
liament house,  government  buildings,  post-offices, 
college  and  university  buildings,  museums,  markets, 
parks,  and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  a  great  city.  Be- 
fore anything  is  done,  however,  the  government  has 
called  for  competitive  designs  upon  all  phases  of  the 
problem,  to  be  submitted  upon  a  given  date.  This 
item  of  news  is  introduced  at  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter  upon  the  planning  of  the  town  to  indicate 

19 


2O  The  Making  of  a  Town 

how  the  people  of  Australia  propose  to  build  a 
capital  city  —  by  first  carefully  planning  it. 

Every  town  or  village  has  some  sort  of  a  plan. 
It  may  be  one  that  is  worked  out  in  the  first  place 
or  one  that  is  evolved  later,  but  the  town  does  not 
move  far  in  its  history  before  a  paper  plat  has  been 
accepted  by  the  civil  authorities.  The  expansion  of 
most  of  the  towns  of  modern  times  is  the  result  of 
real  estate  enterprises,  and  their  purpose  has  been 
to  sell  lots  rather  than  to  look  at  the  community  as 
a  social  organization  with  a  future;  so  towns  have 
grown  by  accretions,  called,  in  the  real  estate  world, 
additions.  These  are  plotted  with  the  single  pur- 
pose in  view  just  referred  to,  and  in  carrying  it  out 
the  adherence  to  accepted  ideas,  shown  usually  in 
the  checkerboard  form  of  plotting,  is  a  customary 
feature  of  real  estate  promotion.  There  are  other 
instances  of  town  planning  of  a  special  character,  re- 
sulting from  the  purpose  of  some  manufacturing 
concern  to  devise  a  town  which  it  can  control,  in 
planning,  organization  and  government;  and  in 
many  instances  such  places  are  really  model  towns 
that  hold  up  an  example  for  the  imitation  of  the 
slower  going  communities.  But  very  few  towns  are 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  21 

planned  with  much  of  the  future  in  view;  if  they 
were,  we  should  not  find  the  embarrassment  and 
limitations  to  town  growth  brought  about  by  high 
values  of  property  in  private  hands,  but  we  would 
find  provisions  made  in  the  plans  for  the  needs  of 
the  inhabitants  and  the  protection  of  comfort  and 
decency  through  control  over  surrounding  lands. 
Only  within  the  past  few  years  has  there  been  any 
consideration  given  to  the  need  of  plotting  the  land 
round  about  as  well  as  inside  the  town  limits,  and 
that  has  been  done  mostly  abroad;  thus  it  is  left  for 
future  generations  to  wonder  why  the  present 
dwellers  in  towns  did  not  protect  themselves  by  look- 
ing after  the  open  places,  school  sites,  and  other 
public  needs. 

In  general,  without  refining  the  distinction,  there 
are  two  types  of  town  planning.  One  may  be  called 
the  formal  and  the  other  the  informal  type.  In  the 
first  class  are  the  checkerboard,  diagonal,  and  round 
forms  of  city  plans,  while  included  in  the  second  are 
the  garden  cities  and  the  individual  plans  made  to 
fit  topographical  conditions.  New  York  City  set  the 
seal  of  approval  upon  the  gridiron  system  in  the 
working  out  of  the  city  plans  above  Fourteenth 


22  The  Making  of  a  Town 

street.  This  form  is  the  simplest  and  it  provides 
an  accurate  method  of  property  description,  though 
it  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  every  citizen  to 
pass  around  two  sides  of  a  block  to  reach  a  given 
point,  and  it  utilizes  an  unusually  large  portion  of  the 
land  for  street  purposes.  The  diagonal  type  of  plan 
was  used  by  L'Enfant  in  the  laying  out  of  the  city 
of  Washington.  The  ring  plan  as  planned  in  the 
European  cities,  is  seen  more  particularly  in  the  case 
of  Vienna,  where  the  old  fortifications  were  used  as 
the  foundations  of  the  boulevards  extending  around 
the  city.  Opposed  to  these  forms  are  the  towns  of 
the  informal  type,  among  which  may  be  enumerated 
the  garden  cities,  established  in  England  more  than 
anywhere  else,  largely  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
natural  setting  to  modern  industry. 

Without  doubt  Letchworth  in  England  furnishes 
the  best  example  of  the  informal  type,  since  the  pur- 
pose of  the  organizer  was  clear  and  up  to  the  pres- 
ent more  fully  developed  than  elsewhere.  Says  the 
prospectus  of  the  company,  "The  four  main  fea- 
tures of  Letchworth  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
(i)  the  freehold  of  the  town  is  held  in  the  interest 
of  the  present  and  future  community;  (2)  the 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  23 

maximum  number  of  houses  to  the  acre  is  twelve; 
(3)  only  one-third  of  the  estate  is  being  developed 
as  town,  two-thirds  are  being  retained  as  rural  and 
parkland;  (4)  the  shareholders  are  entitled  to  five 
per  cent,  the  surplus  will  go  to  the  tenants  and 
lessees  in  one  form  or  another."  Hampstead,  on 
the  outskirts  of  London,  is  an  excellent  example  of 
the  topographical  plan,  for  there  the  housing  and 
garden  questions  have  been  brought  to  a  harmonious 
conclusion.  The  manufacturing  village  under  com- 
pany control  is  best  illustrated  by  the  instances  of 
Port  Sunlight  and  Bourneville  in  England;  Alfreds- 
hof  in  Essen,  Germany;  Hopedale,  Massachusetts; 
Gary,  Indiana,  and  LeClaire,  Missouri. 

The  garden  plans  require,  however,  certain  racial 
conditions  in  the  community.  If  there  is  consider- 
able variety  in  the  nationality  of  the  population,  it 
is  difficult  indeed  to  work  out  a  garden  city  plan. 
The  purpose  is  to  secure  a  combined  city  and  town 
effect;  to  do  this  the  gridiron  system  of  lot  arrange- 
ment has  been  given  over  entirely,  and  the  number 
of  houses  limited  to  from  ten  to  twenty  to  the  acre. 
Twelve  houses  to  the  acre  of  building  land  provides 
gardens  of  the  right  size,  and  not  too  large  to  be 


24  The  Making  of  a  Town 

worked  by  a  laborer  and  his  family.  These  houses 
are  carefully  grouped  so  as  to  give  a  picturesque 
appearance. 

But  these  facts  about  the  garden  city  are  not  the 
vital  ones,  for  the  whole  emphasis  in  the  town's  de- 
velopment has  been  shifted  from  property  to  citizens. 
To  secure  the  advantages  of  comfortable  living  at 
smaller  costs,  with  enlarged  community  and  indi- 
vidual rights,  is  the  purpose  of  these  new  munici- 
palities. When  the  idea  is  fully  realized  the  city  is 
its  own  landlord  and  its  own  builder,  utilizing  the 
land  for  recreation  and  residence  purposes,  while 
planning  for  playgrounds,  beauty  spots,  and  open 
areas  for  public  buildings.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciples recognized  are  ( i )  the  purchase  of  low-priced 
agricultural  land  before  development  takes  place; 
(2)  the  permanent  control  of  the  area,  including 
streets,  parks,  and  open  spaces;  (3)  the  utilization 
of  the  unearned  increment  due  to  the  growth  of  the 
town  for  the  benefit  of  the  town,  through  either  re- 
duction in  rent  or  the  enlargement  of  municipal  en- 
terprises. 

The  types  of  the  garden  city  may  be  grouped 
under  the  three  heads  of  ( i )  the  self-contained  in- 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  2$ 

dustrial  community;  (2)  the  garden  suburb;  and  (3) 
the  industrial  village  adjoining  a  factory  plant.  All 
have  in  common  the  element  of  superior  authority 
resting  in  the  community  organization. 

In  Germany,  where  the  greatest  advances  have 
been  made  in  planning  cities  along  distinctly  topo- 
graphical lines,  a  marked  opposition  has  sprung  up 
to  what  is  called  the  "handsome  picture"  type  of 
plan,  which  seeks  to  arrange  symmetrically  the  ap- 
pearance of  buildings.  This  is  effected  mainly  upon 
paper,  though  in  actual  construction  it  fails  to  make 
the  impression  that  is  expected  when  first  planned. 
The  point  of  view  of  this  new  group  of  men  in  Ger- 
many is  the  avoidance  of  monotony  and  the  use  of 
local  circumstances  through  development  according 
to  topographical  conditions.  Looked  at  in  this  way, 
no  two  communities  would  have  the  same  plan  of 
development,  since  the  conditions  upon  which  they 
were  worked  out  would  not  be  the  same. 

The  attitude  referred  to  above  is  unquestionably 
the  right  one,  for  the  building  of  a  town  should 
be  based  not  only  upon  the  cooperative  principle,  but 
as  well  upon  knowledge  of  the  best  way  to  unite  in- 
habitants in  their  efforts.  Hence,  in  organizing  the 


26  The  Making  of  a  Town 

plan  of  a  town  or  village,  it  is  essential  ( i )  that  the 
means  of  circulation,  by  which  is  meant  the  roads, 
streets,  walks,  etc.,  shall  be  carefully  planned;  (2) 
that  there  shall  be  proper  locating  and  distribution 
of  open  places  and  public  buildings;  and  (3)  that 
private  lands  shall  be  so  situated  as  to  make  the 
placing  of  residences  desirable  and  agreeable. 
Ordinarily,  recognition  of  the  needs  of  a  town  plan 
is  not  gained  by  the  blowing  of  horns  or  the  enum- 
eration of  the  processes  through  which  the  com- 
munity must  go  to  secure  a  reorganization.  Open- 
mindedness  and  willingness  to  accept  broad  views  of 
the  problem's  solution  are  fundamental.  When 
coupled  with  skillful  investigation  of  needs  and 
problems,  this  attitude  will  undoubtedly  bring  results, 
though  the  acceptance  of  a  plan  should  be  followed 
by  the  united  and  hearty  cooperation  of  public  au- 
thorities and  individuals;  and  when  the  general  out- 
line has  been  adopted,  the  plan  should  be  put  into 
execution  promptly  along  the  lines  laid  down. 

Be  the  community  large  or  small,  it  is  desirable 
that  at  the  beginning  of  the  movement  for  new  plans 
some  knowledge  should  be  secured  of  the  character 
of  the  community,  of  the  functions  which  it  per- 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  27 

forms,  and  of  the  economic  and  social  organization 
under  which  it  is  constituted.  In  other  words,  some- 
thing should  be  done  toward  what  is  called,  in  the 
previous  chapter,  an  economic  and  social  survey  of 
the  community.  A  preliminary  local  survey  —  to 
include  the  collection  of  maps,  plans,  drawings,  doc- 
uments, statistics  illustrative  of  the  situation,  history, 
communications,  industry,  population,  town  condi- 
tions,—  would  do  much  to  clear  the  air  of  many  er- 
roneous notions  regarding  the  community  and  its 
future.  To  plan  a  town  rightly  it  is  necessary  to 
have  the  cooperation  of  the  surveyor  and  engineer, 
the  hygienist,  the  economist,  and  finally,  in  order  to 
bring  the  contributions  of  all  these  into  harmony  and 
dignity,  the  architect,  who  is  the  leader  and  organ- 
izer of  the  constructive  side  of  the  work  that  is  to 
be  done.* 

After  the  survey  has  been  made  the  mere  mechan- 
ics of  planning  involve  the  division  of  the  town 
into  districts,  in  which  the  size  and  height  of  build- 
ings are  determined,  and  a  territory  set  apart  for  the 
placing  of  factories.  Thought  also  should  be  had  of 

*See  Catalog  of  Belfast  Cities  and  Town  Planning  Exhibi- 
tion, 1912,  p.  63. 


28  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  laying  out  of  sewers,  not  merely  for  a  period  of 
one  or  two  years,  but  for  at  least  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  years  in  advance  of  the  community.  This  will 
mean  the  saving  of  expense  and  the  giving  of  better 
service  to  the  citizens.  Facilities  for  transportation 
are  not  an  impossibility  and  provision  should  be 
made  for  them.  In  the  development  of  parks  and 
open  places,  the  problem  would  practically  be 
solved,  so  far  as  the  expense  of  it  is  concerned,  if  the 
municipality  were  authorized  to  purchase  land  and 
to  replat  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  benefit  of 
the  resulting  rise  in  values  that  always  follows  the 
creation  of  any  park  or  open  place.  Even  in  case 
the  land  is  occupied,  its  condemnation  under  the  law, 
though  the  expense  to  the  community  would  be  great, 
would  be  justified  by  the  added  value  given  to  it 
by  the  improvement.  It  is  said  that  when  Vienna 
wants  money  for  public  purposes  the  authorities 
make  improvements  and  sell  the  adjoining  land  for 
high  prices  due  to  the  changes  made.  The  ordinary 
method  of  meeting  the  cost  of  a  park  is  to  assess 
back  upon  the  land  surrounding  it  the  benefits  that 
come  from  the  creation  of  the  park.  In  one  way 
this  is  the  plan  of  the  Vienna  method,  except  that 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  29 

there  is  no  change  in  the  ownership  of  the  property 
and  the  city  can  make  no  profit  above  the  cost  of 
the  improvement. 

The  inhabitants  of  most  western  towns  have  had 
very  little  to  say  about  the  laying  out  of  their  com- 
munities. They  have  been  planned  usually  by  en- 
gineers on  the  basis  of  what  might  be  called  a  rect- 
angular town.  The  main  street  is  either  parallel  or 
at  right  angles  to  the  railroad.  Thus,  one  finds  in 
traveling  across  the  country  town  after  town  ex- 
actly similar  in  the  details  of  its  planning.  Some- 
times the  courthouse  is  placed  at  one  end  of  the 
main  street  and  the  schoolhouse  at  the  other,  with 
a  square  in  the  center  between  them,  though  this 
arrangement  is  rather  rare.  In  the  older  towns  of 
Europe  a  traveler  is  impressed  by  the  irregularity 
of  the  streets  and  in  many  instances  by  their  nar- 
rowness. A  more  careful  examination,  however, 
shows  that  the  men  who  planned  these  communities 
had  in  mind  the  nature  of  the  traffic  on  the  streets, 
as  well  as  the  general  picture  the  town  makes  as  a 
consequence  of  the  careful  laying  out  of  streets.  The 
street  question,  therefore,  reaches  great  importance 
in  every  community. 


30  The  Making  of  a  Town 

The  tendency  in  America  has  been  to  make  streets 
practically  the  same  width  throughout  the  town, 
regardless  of  the  purpose  or  service  that  they  are 
to  render.  In  most  instances  the  streets  of  the  town 
are  too  wide,  especially  the  part  devoted  to  road- 
ways. One  is  astonished  again  and  again  to  find 
in  Europe  roadways  eight,  twelve  and  sixteen  feet 
in  width,  upon  which  passes  a  very  considerable 
traffic.  Consequently,  the  widening  of  the  parkings 
of  our  streets  and  the  narrowing  of  the  actual  road- 
way would  result  in  a  very  material  beautifying  of 
the  street,  and  in  addition  would  lessen  the  cost  of 
keeping  the  paving  in  order.  Many  an  official, 
planning  the  streets  of  a  new  town,  fails  to  recog- 
nize that  traffic  is  never  so  great  as  the  provision  of 
his  plat  calls  for.  Seldom  is  it  necessary  for  three 
vehicles  to  pass  abreast,  and  if  it  is,  twenty-four 
feet  are  ample  space,  while  sixteen  are  nearer  the 
requirements  of  the  ordinary  street.  When  there 
is  any  addition  to  the  multiple  eight  feet,  there  is 
useless  expense  and  no  benefit  gained,  since  a  vehicle 
requires  that  much  and  no  more  room  to  move  on 
the  highway. 

The  junctions  of  streets,  where  traffic  comes  in 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  31 

contact  with  the  buildings  in  any  direction,  form 
a  very  important  feature  in  every  community.  In 
the  checkerboard  and  diagonal  types  of  towns  the 
method  of  dealing  with  junctions  is  practically  the 
same  in  all  cases.  In  the  European  cities,  especially 
in  those  of  Germany,  the  junctions  of  streets  vary 
according  to  the  conditions  of  traffic;  in  case  of  con- 
gested traffic  the  junction  is  widened  out  at  the  cross- 
ing, narrowing  again  as  the  street  proceeds. 

Just  how  far  tree-planting  should  be  carried  on 
along  streets  and  roadways  depends  upon  local  con- 
ditions. "  Trees  and  grass  form  the  natural  decora- 
tion for  streets  and  places  in  towns  wherever  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  will  allow  them  to  grow. 
Like  every  form  of  decoration,  however,  this  needs 
to  be  used  with  considerable  judgment  and  restraint. 
Breadth  and  simplicity  of  treatment  seem  to  be  essen- 
tial to  good  results.  Many  fine  streets  and  places  in 
continental  towns  are  spoiled  for  lack  of  restraint 
in  the  character  of  the  gardening  and  planting 
adopted.  Broad  stretches  of  grass  and  simple 
masses  or  avenues  of  foliage  are  generally  success- 
ful, if  well  placed."  The  small  town  is  faced  with 
the  problem  of  tree-planting,  and  in  addition  effec- 


32  The  Making  of  a  Town 

tive  tree-planting,  which  will  be  useful  for  shade  pur- 
poses and  beautiful  in  decoration.  Perhaps  the  first 
requisite  is  a  tree  ordinance,  the  second  surely  is 
consultation  with  a  landscape  architect,  as  to  the 
kinds  of  trees,  distances  apart,  and  where  to  plant. 
Some  streets  call  for  one  treatment  and  some  for  an- 
other, but  monotony  should  be  avoided.  And  a 
third  requirement  should  be  added.  It  is  to  this 
effect:  make  the  municipality  responsible  for  the 
planting  and  care  of  trees;  for  when  this  is  done  con- 
tinuity and  persistency  become  the  attitude  of  the 
community  and  provide  for  adequate  planting  and 
care  through  a  series  of  years. 

The  problem  of  paving  is  perennial  and  difficult 
of  solution.  In  many  instances  the  utilization  of 
macadam  for  the  village  street  is  all  that  is  required, 
and  in  a  locality  where  gravel  is  difficult  to  obtain 
a  composite  paving  is  resorted  to  in  the  business  sec- 
tions of  the  town.  There  is  a  great  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  best  forms  of  paving,  but  undoubt- 
edly all  would  agree  that  there  should  be  a  concrete 
base  from  four  to  eight  inches  in  thickness.  Upon 
this  may  be  placed  many  types  of  paving.  Only 
four  or  five  classes  of  materials,  which  have  been 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  33 

tested  by  experience,  need  to  be  considered  by  a 
community  seeking  a  paving.  These  are  stone 
blocks  or  cobbles,  asphalt,  wood  block,  and  brick; 
but  even  these  when  tested  by  the  criteria  of  noise- 
lessness,  absence  of  slipperiness,  general  appearance, 
and  economy,  leave  much  to  be  desired.  In  the  past 
ten  years  there  has  been  a  very  rapid  growth  in  the 
use  of  the  wood  block  and  bituminous  macadam. 
Paving  wears  out  rapidly  and  the  automobile  helps 
materially  in  its  dissolution,  creating  also  a  diffi- 
cult dust  problem.  It  is  said  on  good  authority  that 
the  roads  of  America  lose  500,000  tons  of  material 
annually  by  wind  and  wear  and  tear  of  vehicles. 
Here  and  there  attempts  have  been  made  to  oil 
roads,  and  when  the  oil  has  had  an  asphaltic  base 
the  application  has  materially  helped  to  check  the 
dust. 

Very  early  in  the  history  of  the  community  the 
question  of  buildings,  of  height  and  materials,  comes 
before  the  governing  body  for  consideration.  The 
sky-lines  of  New  York  City  and  Chicago  have  been 
imitated  in  practically  every  community  on  a 
greater  or  less  scale.  In  the  main  districts  of  towns, 
buildings  are  erected  closely  together  on  what  might 


34  The  Making  of  a  Town 

be  called  the  string  method.  They  crowd  along  the 
main  street  and  the  public  square,  which  in  some 
measure  is  convenient,  but  it  is  always  productive  of 
an  awkward  appearance.  If  the  small  town  could 
realize  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  build  all  of  its  busi- 
ness houses  next  to  one  another,  and  so  scatter  them 
about  here  and  there,  changing  their  appearance  to 
conform  to  the  surroundings,  the  town  itself  would 
be  much  more  beautiful  and  the  artistic  sense  of  the 
community  very  materially  advanced.  This  prin- 
ciple has  been  followed  in  the  case  of  the  garden 
city  plans  that  have  been  developed  in  England. 

That  "  a  man's  house  is  his  castle  "  appears  to  be 
the  measure  of  house-building  in  our  own  country, 
where  the  small  detached  house  is  so  much  in  vogue. 
Nothing  more  forlorn  in  the  problem  of  town  plan- 
ning is  to  be  found  anywhere  than  in  the  streets 
lined  by  continuous  rows  of  houses  of  similar  design 
and  erected  at  equal  distances  from  each  other  on 
a  straight  line.  Nor  is  the  view  much  improved 
when  the  owners  strive  to  outdo  their  neighbors. 
Then  monotony  gives  way  to  a  "higgledy-piggledy" 
result  that  is  almost  as  unsatisfactory,  though  each 
man  prides  himself  on  having  protected  his  own  in- 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  35 

terest.  The  offset  to  this  situation  is  collective  plan- 
ning and  control;  "  for  the  trouble  lies  in  the  funda- 
mentally bad  requisites  as  to  their  proportions,  mass 
and  relative  position,  made  necessary  by  the  current 
system  of  lot  sizes  and  their  individual  develop- 
ment."* And  nothing  can  solve  the  problem  but  a 
joint  determination  on  the  part  of  owners  to  place 
their  houses  where  each  one  will  have  a  fair  out- 
look, and  also  to  accept  one  architect  who  shall  mass 
the  buildings  as  seems  wise,  in  order  to  have  archi- 
tectural results  and  economy  of  construction.  So 
impossible  does  an  outcome  of  this  kind  seem  that 
hut  little  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  way  of  better 
house  and  building  grouping  in  the  average  town, 
except  here  and  there,  where  a  land  owner  has  ac- 
cepted and  emphasized  the  principle  of  collective 
planning  and  control.  Yet  the  burdens  of  land  own- 
ership and  the  evils  of  land  speculation  are  bound 
to  force  the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  properly 
concentrated  and  located  houses  on  small  lots  that  at 
the  same  time  will  prove  to  be  effective  buildings 
from  the  architectural  point  of  view. 

The  town  that  does  not  possess  a  park  of  some 

*  See  an  interesting  article,  Scribner's  Magazine,  July,   1912, 
p.  28. 


36  The  Making  of  a  Town 

kind  is  an  anomaly,  for  the  city  fathers  of  practically 
every  community  have  purchased  a  plat  of  land  that 
in  the  parlance  of  the  community  is  known  as  "  the 
park."  It  may  be  a  long  distance  from  the  center 
of  the  town,  or  it  may  be  actually  inside  of  the  city, 
but  it  is  usually  added  as  an  afterthought  to  the  orig- 
inal plan,  for  one  of  the  things  that  is  overlooked 
often  by  the  planners  of  towns,  especially  when 
they  are  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  gridiron  or 
checkerboard  system,  is  the  park.  Under  ideal  con- 
ditions it  should  be  located  in  the  center  of  the  com- 
munity, connected  by  good  roads  to  every  part  of  the 
town,  and  within  its  area  should  be  a  baseball  dia- 
mond, tennis  courts,  and  a  ball  ground.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  playground  idea  some  tendency  is  to  be 
seen  at  the  present  time  toward  this  type  of  park 
and  undoubtedly  it  will  be  more  and  more  marked 
as  time  goes  on.  One  reason  why  the  town  life  of 
mediaeval  Europe  reached  such  delightful  propor- 
tions was  because  of  the  frequent  coming  and  going 
of  the  people  in  the  plaza.  The  park  of  today  in 
the  modern  town  takes  the  place  of  the  old  plaza, 
and  every  inducement  should  be  made  to  bring  the 
community  into  it  and  every  incentive  set  up  to  cause 


The  Planning  of  the  Town  37 

them  to  use  it,  since  it  tends  to  develop  that  larger 
sense  of  democracy  so  greatly  needed  in  our  com- 
munities. But  it  is  a  far  cry  from  the  theory  of  a 
park  as  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  community  to 
the  actual  securing  of  adequate  recreation  grounds. 
A  landscape  architect  recently  reporting  upon  the 
problems  involved  in  developing  a  park,  first  called 
attention  to  the  physical  features  that  affect  most  the 
beauty  or  ugliness  of  a  town.  He  followed  this 
study  by  another  regarding  the  need  of  neighbor- 
hood squares  and  then  showed  the  locations  for  play- 
grounds, the  use  of  parks  of  large  natural  beauty 
and  sufficiently  unified  so  that  future  development 
would  not  mar  it.  To  him  the  importance  of  acces- 
sibility, street  extensions  and  parkways,  as  well  as 
the  surroundings  of  railway  stations,  made  them  a 
part  of  the  park  problem  that  was  joined  with  the 
whole  town  development. 

The  purpose,  after  all,  of  city  planning,  as  Mr. 
John  Nolan  says,  is  to  make  the  community  "more 
democratic,  to  develop  the  individuality  of  the  city, 
and  to  stop  waste  —  waste  of  land,  of  human  energy 
and  vitality,  and  waste  of  health  through  badly 
planned  sewerage  and  water  systems." 


38  The  Making  of  a  Town 

We  are  just  beginning  to  get  an  idea  of  the  im- 
portance of  town-planning.  "Making  things  do" 
has  been  the  basis  of  most  town  construction,  and 
the  removal  of  the  ugliness  from  modern  life  is  one 
of  the  functions  of  the  up-to-date  community.  Yet 
this  is  just  the  thing  that  is  apt  to  be  overlooked. 
In  many  instances  things  have  been  done  in  a  nig- 
gardly way,  but  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
art  to  the  planning  of  the  town  is  not  to  be  looked 
upon  simply  as  the  suggestion  of  a  connoisseur,  but 
rather  as  a  thing  which  the  most  practical  man  ought 
to  take  into  consideration  and  plan  for.  "Art," 
after  all,  "  is  the  doing  well  of  what  needs  doing." 
It  is  not  a  trimming,  but  a  necessity,  and  when  a 
thing  is  well  thought  out,  well  planned,  and  well 
built,  art  will  be  the  result. 


THE    FIRST   FUNDAMENTAL— HEALTH 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  FIRST  FUNDAMENTAL  —  HEALTH 


"'T^HE  public  health  is  the  foundation  on  which 
-»-  reposes  the  happiness  of  the  people  and  the 
power  of  a  country,"  said  Lord  Beaconsfield  forty 
years  ago.  The  statement  made  then  is  still  true. 
In  the  course  of  the  next  twelve  months  a  million  and 
a  half  persons  will  die  in  the  United  States;  more 
than  four  million  two  hundred  thousand  will  be  con- 
stantly sick,  which  is  to  say  that  over  five  million 
homes,  containing  twenty-five  million  persons,  will  be 
affected  and  made  wretched  sometime  during  the 
year  as  a  result  of  morbidity  and  mortality.  The  cost 
of  such  wholesale  sickness  and  death  amounts  to 
millions  of  dollars  annually.  Individually  the  Amer- 
ican takes  more  baths  than  the  average  man  of  any 
other  nation,  but  looked  at  from  a  communal  point 
of  view  he  is  nearly  as  dirty  as  the  people  of  what 
are  usually  referred  to  as  the  less  enlightened  lands. 
In  Spain  the  death  rate  per  million  of  population  in 

41 


42  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  period  from  1905  to  1908,  from  the  most  typi- 
cal of  the  filth  diseases,  typhoid,  was  362;  in  the 
United  States  it  was  288,  while  in  Ireland  it  was  91, 
in  England  80,  in  Prussia  61,  and  in  Switzerland  46. 

In  the  American  community  this  condition  of  af- 
fairs may  be  traced  to  the  want  of  cooperation  on 
the  part  of  citizens  and  the  indifference  of  public  of- 
ficials, due  largely  to  their  lack  of  imagination  and 
understanding  of  the  meaning  of  sanitation.  As  a 
people  we  fail  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  health 
and  the  effect  which  it  has  upon  the  growth  and  prog- 
ress of  the  community.  There  are  a  number  of 
weighty  problems  involved  in  the  growth  of  every 
town  which  are  closely  associated  with  its  health 
and  the  extent  of  the  death  rate.  They  may  be 
enumerated  as  those  dealing  with  the  removal  of  gar- 
bage and  ashes,  the  care  of  sewage,  the  source  of 
water,  the  protection  of  milk  and  foods,  and  the 
prevention  of  epidemics  in  the  public  schools. 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  the  smaller  communities 
to  allow  every  citizen  to  determine  for  himself  how 
his  ashes  and  garbage  and  other  refuse  shall  be 
handled,  though  happily  we  have  passed  beyond  the 
day  when  the  household  refuse  was  spilled  in  the 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        43 

streets  and  slops  thrown  from  the  windows  without 
regard  to  the  finery  of  the  passer-by  on  the  paving 
below.  The  method  much  in  vogue  was  for  each  in- 
dividual to  haul  outside  of  the  town  limits  the  refuse 
from  his  household  and  deposit  it  where  it  could  be 
done  with  the  least  inconvenience;  but  the  refusal 
of  land-owners  to  permit  this  sort  of  thing  forced 
the  creation  of  a  municipal  dump,  which  in  most 
instances  becomes  a  community  disgrace,  the  abode 
of  flies  and  stench.  In  course  of  time  every  com- 
munity will  be  brought  to  the  maintenance  of  some 
sort  of  collection  system,  especially  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  it  will  not  cost  any  more  in  the  aggregate 
than  the  method  of  individual  dumping.  A  town  in 
one  of  the  northern  tiers  of  counties  in  Minnesota 
provided  every  household  with  a  raised  platform 
where  the  garbage  and  ash  pans  were  placed  before 
being  emptied  at  regular  intervals  by  an  employe  of 
the  community. 

The  arrangements  made  for  the  disposal  of  com- 
munity wastes  are  classified  as  the  license,  the  con- 
tract, municipal  or  dumping  systems.  The  license 
system  is  one  under  which  an  individual  is  given  the 
privilege  of  visiting  the  various  houses  of  the  com- 


44  The  Making  of  a  Town 

munity  to  take  away  the  refuse;  this  usually  means 
an  unsatisfactory  collection,  as  the  licensee  does  not 
wish  to  take  all  that  he  is  asked  to  carry  away.  The 
contract  system  is  one  under  which  the  town  enters 
into  an  arrangement  with  some  individual  to  remove 
the  refuse  at  so  much  per  cubic  yard  or  so  much  per 
year  for  the  whole  job,  while  the  municipal  system 
is  one  that  the  community  operates,  undertaking  to 
carry  on  the  collection,  paying  the  cost  from  public 
funds.  Any  of  these  methods,  however,  may  result 
in  the  plan  of  dumping  on  land  where  burning,  plow- 
ing under,  or  feeding  may  follow  as  a  means  of  de- 
stroying the  accumulations.  The  erection  of  a  munic- 
ipal incinerator  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the 
organic  material  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory, 
though  dump  burning  has  much  to  be  said  for  it  as 
against  allowing  accumulations  without  any  attempt 
at  disposal.  A  separation  of  the  refuse,  though, 
into  organic  and  inorganic  materials  results  in  easier 
handling  of  it  and  more  satisfactory  care.  An 
analysis  of  garbage  shows  70  per  cent  moisture,  3 
per  cent  grease,  20  per  cent  fibrous  material,  and  7 
per  cent  refuse  and  rubbish.  This  is  a  group  of  pos- 
sibilities freighted  with  financial  return,  when 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        45 

handled  on  a  large  scale,  that  has  caused  the  larger 
cities  to  establish  reducing  works,  which  by  the  use 
of  steam  have  produced  soap,  oils,  residues  and  fer- 
tilizers of  value.  Once  in  a  while  satisfactory  in- 
cinerators have  been  built,  but  only  when  the  man- 
ufacturers have  kept  inviolate  the  fundamental  rules 
of  fuel  combustion.  They  have  to  deal  with  wet 
fuels  and  the  problem  involves  the  difficulties  of 
driving  off  the  moisture,  burning  the  gas  vapors, 
and  offsetting  the  heat  loss  by  radiation.  Still,  there 
are  now  no  less  than  250  such  plants  in  Great  Britain, 
and  more  than  half  of  them  are  using  the  heat  pro- 
duced to  manufacture  power.  The  latest  plant  of 
this  type  is  located  in  the  Borough  of  Richmond 
(Staten  Island),  New  York  City.  Professor  Basker- 
ville  declares,  in  his  Municipal  Chemistry,  that  the 
street  cleaning  department  of  New  York  City  found 
in  every  thousand  loads  of  ashes  an  astonishing  lot 
of  materials.  There  were,  according  to  this  state- 
ment, ten  tons  of  tin  cans,  2,400  pounds  of  paper, 
3,000  pounds  of  rags,  11,000  bottles,  55  barrels  of 
broken  glass,  300  empty  barrels,  two  tons  of  old 
iron,  and  836  pounds  of  rubber  products.  Besides 
this  amazing  list,  it  was  found  that  ashes  contained 


46  The  Making  of  a  Town 

30  per  cent  of  clinker,  45  per  cent  of  fine  ash,  and 
25  per  cent  of  unburned  or  partially  burned  coal. 
The  fine  ash  was  available  for  manufacture  into 
Portland  cement,  the  clinker  for  cement  work,  and 
the  coal  for  fuel.  The  whole  is  a  lesson  in  economy 
of  wastes  that  will  press  more  and  more  upon  even 
the  small  municipality. 

Another  question  looms  large  in  the  disposal  of 
community  waste.  It  is  more  difficult  of  solution 
than  the  problem  of  garbage  and  ashes.  House 
sewage  amounts  to  about  thirty  gallons  per  person 
per  day,  and  the  problem  of  disposing  of  this  be- 
comes exceedingly  difficult  for  any  community.  The 
cost  of  building  a  proper  sewer  system  is  one  that 
forces  some  short-cut  method  of  dealing  with  the 
situation.  Two  methods  of  dealing  with  the  waste, 
speaking  in  broad  terms,  remain  to  the  community; 
either  the  draining  of  it  into  the  water  of  a  stream  or 
allowing  the  soil  to  take  care  of  it.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  limit  to  the  capacity  of  water  to  absorb  and 
purify  itself  after  contamination  with  sewage.  The 
usual  method  has  been  to  carry  it  off  in  some  stream 
or  lake,  but  as  populations  grow  very  serious  ob- 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        47 

j actions  arise  to  a  method  of  this  kind,  since  the 
burden  is  merely  shifted  and  the  problem  of  drain- 
age and  freedom  from  stench  is  left  unsolved.  In 
some  places  this  phase  of  the  problem  has  been  met 
by  building  a  series  of  open  tanks,  using  screens  to 
hold  and  retard  the  organic  matter. 

The  other  methods  of  surface  irrigation  or  of 
sub-surface  irrigation  have  certain  features  to  com- 
mend them.  Through  the  medium  of  the  first  the 
sewage  and  household  wastes  are  distributed  through 
specially  devised  pipes  or  drains  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  sloping  away  from  the  sewage  pipes. 
The  area  of  one  acre  of  land  will  absorb  the  sew- 
age of  2,000  persons,  but  as  this  method  is  not 
adaptable  to  cold  climates  it  cannot  be  used  by  many 
cities.  The  sub-surface  irrigation  method  is  a 
similar  system,  except  that  the  effluent  is  carried  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  ground  in  perforated  pipes. 
The  cesspool  and  ordinary  sewage  vault  are  unsat- 
isfactory methods  of  caring  for  sewage,  and  both 
are  likely  to  result  in  the  development  of  disease 
in  the  community.  The  dry  earth  or  sanitary  pail 
closet  is  distinctly  in  advance  of  either  one  of  these, 


48  The  Making  of  a  Town 

although  it  necessitates  considerable  labor  to  render 
it  harmless  and  satisfactory  and  is  not  adaptable  to 
communities  of  any  size. 

Sewage  is  largely  water,  containing  very  little 
inorganic  matter,  and  this  fact  has  made  the  method 
of  sedimentation  attractive  to  a  good  many  sani- 
tary engineers,  because  by  confining  the  effluent  to 
tanks  and  stimulating  sedimentation  by  chemicals 
the  water  can  be  drained  off  without  a  heavy  charge 
of  organic  matter.  The  best  known  of  these  tanks 
is  the  septic  tank,  sometimes  called  a  glorified  cess- 
pool, through  which  the  sewage  flows  slowly,  relying 
upon  bacteria  to  break  up  the  solid  matter.  It  pro- 
vides for  the  first  stage  of  bacterial  action,  break- 
ing up  the  sludge  by  the  bacteria  and  bringing  about 
the  reduction  of  the  organic  matter.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  first  developed  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  in 
1894,  and  was  used  in  Exeter,  England,  in  1896. 
Where  the  water  passes  through  bacteria  beds  the 
effluent  must  be  treated  chemically,  in  order  to 
decrease  the  amount  of  the  bacteria. 

An  improvement  upon  the  septic  tank,  called  the 
Imhoff  tank,  has  been  tried  in  connection  with  a 
large  sewerage  system  developed  in  the  valley  of  the 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        49 

Emscher  River  round  about  the  city  of  Essen,  Ger- 
many. Within  this  drainage  area  are  a  population 
of  2,000,000,  located  in  the  large  city  of  Essen  and  a 
number  of  smaller  places  and  numerous  industrial 
plants  and  coal  mines.  Thus  a  serious  sewage  prob- 
lem was  created:  first  of  drainage  and  second  of 
disposal.  The  latter  phase  of  the  question  is  the 
one  which  more  particularly  interests  the  dweller 
in  the  smaller  city.  The  clarification  tank  adapted 
for  treating  sewage  in  the  district  has  been  called 
the  Imhoff  tank,  after  the  engineer,  Dr.  Karl  Imhoff, 
who  perfected  it.  Like  the  septic  tank,  it  does  not 
render  sewage  pure,  but  it  does  clarify  and  does 
treat  the  residue,  or  sludge,  as  it  is  called.  The 
removal  of  suspended  matter  from  the  sewage  is 
the  business  of  the  Imhoff  tank.  This  form  of  tank 
is  in  reality  a  two-story  septic  tank,  allowing  the  gas- 
producing  and  bacteria-working  influences  to  go  on 
at  the  same  time.  From  the  upper  chamber  the 
suspended  solids  gradually  settle  and  slide  down  the 
sloping  bottoms  into  the  sludge-decomposing  chamber 
below.  Here  the  sludge  remains  until  the  putrescible 
matter  is  thoroughly  decomposed,  when  it  is  removed 
through  a  pipe.  The  gases  of  decomposition  escape, 


50  The  Making  of  a  Town 

and  the  sludge,  on  account  of  low  water  content, 
dries  quickly  and  can  be  used  for  fertilizer  or  filling 
purposes.  These  tanks  have  been  tried  successfully 
in  a  number  of  German  cities;  one  tank  will  take 
care  of  the  sewage  of  2,000  people,  and  a  series  of 
tanks  will  provide  for  the  largest  places.  It  per- 
haps is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  device  is  the 
latest  and  most  advanced  method  of  treating  sewage, 
and  should  be  thoroughly  studied  by  the  engineers  of 
towns  about  to  do  something  with  their  sewage 
problem. 

Fortunate,  indeed,  is  any  town  possessing  a  water 
supply  that  is  above  suspicion  as  a  disease  carrier. 
"To  constitute  a  satisfactory  supply  water  should 
not  only  be  free  at  all  times  from  all  traces  of  micro- 
scopically visible  disease  germs  and  chemical  con- 
tamination, but  the  location  of  its  source  and  the 
methods  of  construction  and  operation  of  its  pump- 
ing station,  storage  reservoir,  and  distribution  should 
be  such  that  full  protection  against  contamination  is 
possible.  And  water  may  be  good  as  shown  by 
chemical  or  bacteriological  examinations,  but  owing 
to  the  near  presence  of  some  source  of  contamina- 
tion, such  as  a  cesspool,  privy  vault,  sewage,  etc., 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        51 

may  become  dangerous  at  any  time.  The  importance 
of  full  information  concerning  the  surroundings  of 
the  source  of  supply  and  the  methods  of  construction 
and  operation  are  to  be  easily  seen." 

The  source  of  water  is  to  be  found  in  wells,  rivers, 
or  lakes.  The  first  may  be  privately  owned  by  indi- 
viduals, each  household  depending  upon  it  for  their 
supply  of  water,  or  the  well  may  be  put  down  to 
greater  depths  by  the  community  and  operated  by 
it.  In  the  former  case  there  are  likely  to  be  great 
differences  in  the  character  and  bacteriological  con- 
dition of  the  water,  since  there  are  many  opportuni- 
ties for  contamination.  The  use  of  water  from  a 
river  or  lake  pumped  into  mains  and  from  them 
into  individual  houses  may  be  materially  affected  by 
the  turbidity  of  the  water,  a  difficulty  met  by  the 
treatment  of  the  water  held  in  reservoirs  through 
the  use  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  iron.  Where  colon 
bacilli  are  present,  it  has  been  possible  by  the  use 
of  chloride  of  lime  to  reduce  the  bacterial  count  to  a 
minimum  point,  rendering  the  water  fit  for  drinking 
purposes.  "  It  only  kills  a  few"  is  a  very  bad  argu- 
ment, though  having  the  sanction  of  the  experience 
test,  and  one  that  ought  not  to  stand  in  the  way  of 


52  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  adoption  of  adequate  means  to  secure  a  satisfac- 
tory water  supply.  Aeration  has  no  value  as  a  dis- 
ease preventer,  though  it  is  effective  in  destroying 
taste  and  smell.  Filtration,  however,  can  be  made 
to  do  much  in  bettering  a  water  supply.  By  this 
method  there  are  two  ways  of  producing  results; 
one  by  a  slow  filtration  of  the  water  through  sand 
and  gravel,  and  the  other  by  rapid  filtration  and  the 
appliance  of  chemicals  by  mechanical  device.  The 
first  requires  frequent  change  of  sand  and  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  reservoirs  in  such  a  way  as  to  provide 
for  the  closing  of  parts  of  them  during  cleaning; 
the  second,  while  no  more  efficient  than  a  sand  filter, 
can  be  utilized  where  there  are  smaller  reservoirs, 
and  when  well  managed  it  requires  but  small  addi- 
tions of  chemicals  to  the  water  and  costs  less  to 
build  and  maintain. 

These  brief  statements  make  clear  that,  however 
difficult  the  water  problems  may  be  in  a  community, 
sanitary  engineers  have  been  able  in  the  main  to 
solve  them,  providing  the  public  can  furnish  the 
necessary  funds  for  the  construction  and  proper 
operation  of  filtration  plants.  In  consequence,  any 
community  that  goes  on  with  its  plans  for  a  water 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        53 

supply  without  advice  from  first-class  sanitary  experts 
is  short-sighted,  to  say  the  least,  and  in  these  days  of 
science  may  be  called  criminally  foolish. 

Another  source,  and  a  very  frequent  one,  of 
typhoid  contamination  is  the  milk  supply;  this  result, 
however,  is  not  to  be  traced  back  to  "  bossy,"  but  is 
due  to  careless  handling  of  milk  in  its  distribution. 
Typhoid  is  only  one  of  the  troubles  that  come  from 
careless  handling,  for  many  children's  diseases  may 
be  traced  to  "  dirty  milk."  By  far  the  greatest 
amount  of  harm  that  is  produced  by  milk  is  due  to 
the  objectionable  bacteria  which  it  contains.  No 
test  has  been  devised  that  will  quickly  and  easily 
show  the  presence  of  disease  germs  in  milk;  hence 
the  dairy  and  its  surroundings  must  be  clean  all  of 
the  time.  Unless  a  community  establishes  inspection 
of  dairies  and  examination  of  product,  it  can  have 
no  sense  of  security  against  disease.  While  even 
minimum  requirements  of  ordinances  may  do  some- 
thing, occasional  visits  of  customers  to  dairies  will 
help  materially  the  maintenance  of  clean  conditions 
in  the  milk  business  and  uphold  the  hands  of  officers. 

It  remained  for  Dr.  Koch  to  point  out  the  danger 
from  infection  through  the  prevalence  of  tuberculosis 


54  The  Making  of  a  Town 

in  milch  cows.  The  convincing  work  of  Dr.  Hess, 
of  New  York  City,  furnished  proof  positive  that 
tuberculosis  can  be  contracted  through  the  use  of 
milk  from  tubercular  cows.  In  some  instances  as 
high  as  two  per  cent  of  the  children  fed  upon  milk 
may  be  infected  with  cattle  tuberculosis.  Conse- 
quently, no  health  officer  can  be  regarded  as  having 
fulfilled  his  duty  to  the  people  of  the  community  if 
he  does  not  insist  upon  the  testing  of  every  dairy 
cow  in  his  community  with  tuberculin  and  excluding 
reacting  cows  from  the  herd.  In  cases  where  such  free- 
dom from  tuberculosis  among  dairy  herds  is  impos- 
sible to  secure,  pasteurization  should  be  resorted  to 
by  heating  the  milk  to  160  degrees  for  twenty  min- 
utes. Milk  after  such  treatment  cannot  be  kept  long 
and  should  be  placed  upon  ice,  for  otherwise  it 
develops  a  condition  more  harmful  than  milk  begin- 
ning to  sour.  Even  butter  may  be  infected  when 
made  from  the  cream  brought  from  infected  herds. 
Public  health  can  be  maintained  at  its  highest  point 
only  through  cooperation,  watchfulness,  the  use  of 
trained  men,  and  government  authority. 

The  one  place  above  all  others  where  the  health 
of  the  community  is  always  open  to  determination 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        55 

is  in  the  public  schools  of  the  town,  for  here  are  to 
be  seen  the  immediate  effects  of  epidemics,  unsatis- 
factory ventilation,  the  presence  of  disease  germs  in 
the  water,  and  the  numerous  other  things  that  are 
likely  to  affect  the  children  of  the  town.  The  instal- 
lation of  fan  systems  of  ventilation  in  most  public 
buildings  that  are  now  being  erected  has  removed 
some  of  the  difficulties  confronting  the  schoolmaster 
in  the  care  of  the  health  of  the  children  under  his 
instruction.  The  placing  of  drinking  fountains  in 
the  schoolhouses  also  and  doing  away  with  the  old 
drinking  cup  has  performed  miracles  in  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  sore  throats  and  colds. 

Yet  there  is  much  to  be  done  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  country.  Investigations  of  one  kind 
or  another  have  shown  that  children  are  more  or 
less  defective.  In  one  of  the  schools  in  Minneapolis 
a  few  years  ago  710  pupils  were  examined  to  get 
at  their  physical  condition.  The  children  were  classi- 
fied in  three  groups,  known  as  class  I,  class  II,  and 
class  III.  The  first  contained  those  that  were  either 
perfect  or  practically  so,  the  second  those  that  had 
slight  defects  easily  removable,  and  the  third  those 
that  were  more  seriously  affected.  Forty-six  were 


56  The  Making  of  a  Town 

found  to  be  absolutely  perfect,  and  202  had  defects 
so  trifling  that  no  attention  of  any  kind  was  neces- 
sary; 191  had  defects  that  might  need  medical  atten- 
tion, and  in  271  cases  the  examining  physician  specif- 
ically pointed  out  the  need  of  medical  treatment. 
Among  these  defects  were  enlarged  cervical  glands, 
adenoids,  malnutrition,  defective  teeth,  speech,  hear- 
ing, and  vision,  and  other  weaknesses  that  needed 
medical  attention.  In  other  cities  similar  conditions 
have  been  discovered  upon  inspections  made  by 
examining  physicians,  and  the  movement  now  is 
steadily  toward  the  appointment  of  an  examiner  in 
every  school  system  of  any  importance.  It  has  like- 
wise been  found  that  the  necessary  follow-up  work 
after  defects  have  been  brought  to  light  cannot  be 
done  by  the  teacher,  but  must  be  done  by  a  trained 
person.  Consequently,  the  visiting  nurse  has  in  many 
towns  of  the  country  become  a  part  of  the  school 
system,  materially  assisting  the  teacher  in  the  care 
of  the  pupils.  As  our  eyes  are  opened  to  the  im- 
mensity of  the  problem  of  education,  it  is  more  and 
more  brought  clearly  to  light  that  the  teacher  cannot 
carry  all  the  burdens  of  a  properly  conducted  school 
system  in  addition  to  the  instruction  which  she  is 


The  First  Fundamental  —  Health        57 

giving.  If  she  attempts  it,  like  Tarpeia  of  old  she 
is  overwhelmed  by  those  from  without  who  were 
admitted  within  the  walls. 

Closely  associated  with  the  problem  of  health 
existent  in  the  community  are  many  other  questions, 
such  as  surveillance  of  food  emporiums,  disinfection 
of  houses  and  rooms  used  by  diseased  persons, 
sprinkling  and  cleaning  streets,  and  the  proper  means 
of  quarantine.  Little  by  little  we  are  awakening  to 
the  importance  of  the  health  officer  and  to  the  reali- 
zation that  it  is  quite  as  necessary  to  have  a  man 
with  a  social  outlook  and  a  wide  knowledge  of  what 
is  done  in  sanitation  as  one  with  a  medical  training, 
in  order  that  he  may  be  a  successful  guardian  of  the 
people's  health. 


THE  SECOND  FUNDAMENTAL— 
SCHOOLS 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SECOND  FUNDAMENTAL — SCHOOLS 

THE  test  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  condi- 
tions existing  in  a  community  will  always  be 
found  in  the  schools  that  are  maintained.  This  is  es- 
pecially true,  because  through  the  school  the  conti- 
nuity of  institutions  and  race  experiences  are  handed 
on  from  generation  to  generation.  In  the  days  of 
the  simple  community  the  function  of  transmitting 
racial  ideas  was  performed  through  personal  con- 
tact and  intercourse,  and  by  the  sharing  of  young 
and  old  in  common  activities.  But  as  life  has  grown 
more  complex,  the  difficulty  of  impressing  upon  each 
new  generation  the  important  phases  of  life  has 
materially  increased,  so  that  the  school  must  be 
called  in  to  assist  in  accomplishing  this  end.  The 
statement,  then,  at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph, 
that  the  intellectual  and  moral  conditions  of  the 
community  are  measured  by  the  school,  is  not  a  trite 
statement  used  to  arouse  interest,  but  one  full  of 

61 


62  The  Making  of  a  Town 

deep  meanings  in  which  are  involved  the  future  of 
the  community. 

It  may  be  put  down  that  there  are  several  reasons 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  school  in  any  community. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  necessity  of  acquiring  the 
tools  of  learning  found  in  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, the  use  of  language,  the  picturing  of  ideas  and 
the  like,  and  in  addition  the  establishment  of  the 
power  of  enjoyment  of  a  rational  character  through 
the  opening  of  the  treasure  houses  of  science,  liter- 
ature, and  the  arts  to  the  young  mind.  The  state 
would  not  be  satisfied  with  these  personal  acquisi- 
tions, if  it  did  not  hope  that  through  the  school  there 
would  take  place  an  endowing  of  the  individual 
with  power  to  serve  and  an  ability  to  maintain  and 
uphold  racial  ideals  and  institutions  by  constantly 
renewing  them  through  the  child.  Put  broadly,  then, 
the  school  is  not  only  a  means  of  developing  the 
individual  child,  but,  from  the  community  point  of 
view,  it  is  a  safeguard  against  deterioration. 

The  important  problems  associated  with  the 
development  of  the  school  system  are  to  be  found 
in  four  factors:  first,  the  building  and  its  location; 
second,  its  equipment;  third,  the  training  of  the 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      63 

pupil  and  the  determination  of  the  courses  of  study; 
and,  fourth,  the  teacher.  It  will  be  the  purpose  of 
this  chapter  to  consider  each  of  these  factors  in 
order. 

The  choice  of  the  location  of  the  school  grounds 
is  too  often  determined  by  political  or  personal  con- 
siderations. "Nothing  is  too  good  for  the  school" 
should  be  the  slogan  of  the  village  or  town,  and  on 
account  of  that  attitude  a  well-turned  piece 
of  ground,  centrally  located,  and  facing  southeast, 
should  be  selected  as  the  place  for  the  building.  As 
to  the  size  of  the  grounds,  the  city  block  too  often 
furnishes  the  criterion  for  the  determination  of  the 
area  which  school  boards  have  been  known  to 
utilize  for  more  than  one  building.  Once  a  wise  man 
suggested  the  idea  of  a  school  park  adequate  for  all 
the  school  buildings  of  the  town  and  with  enough 
land  for  playgrounds,  gardens  and  aquariums  round- 
about. Straitened  circumstances  though  have  forced 
most  communities  to  use  what  they  could  buy  and 
pay  for  at  the  time.  This  course  is  often  regretted, 
for  posterity  blesses  the  man  who  sees  largely,  espe- 
cially if  the  community  is  persuaded  to  do  what  he 
suggests.  Every  school  ought  to  have  land  for  ade- 


64  The  Making  of  a  Town 

quate  playgrounds  and  school  gardens,  where  the 
children  under  proper  direction,  can  come  into  closer 
contact  with  the  mystery  of  growing  things.  Any 
other  plan  is  short-sighted  and  foolish. 

Today  the  tendency  is  toward  more  permanent 
materials  for  school  buildings  and  the  giving  over 
of  the  wooden  type,  because  it  is  expensive  to  keep 
up,  likely  to  be  damaged  badly  in  case  of  fire,  cold  in 
winter,  and  warm  in  summer.  Moreover,  the  type 
of  building  that  is  now  being  erected  constantly 
approaches  simpler  forms  in  general  structure  and 
ornamentation.  It  is  considered  important  to  erect 
the  building  from  the  inside  out,  as  it  were,  rather 
than  from  the  outside  in.  Consequently,  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  lighting.  Several  forms  of  buildings 
are  now  erected  in  the  cities,  among  them  the  H  and 
E  types;  the  first  a  building  of  two  large  wings,  with 
a  connecting  center,  in  which  are  to  be  found  the 
gymnasium  and  assembly  hall;  the  second  a  building 
with  wings  extending  from  the  ends  and  the  center. 
Both  of  these  forms  are  advantageous,  since  they 
allow  of  expansion  to  meet  future  demands.  The 
student  of  school  architecture  is  impressed  with  the 
fact  that  it  has  moved  forward  just  as  fast  as  there 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      65 

has  been  a  development  of  educational  theory,  and 
the  larger  view  of  educational  possibilities  in  the 
field  of  vocational  training,  kindergarten  instruc- 
tion, and  domestic  art  has  had  a  marked  effect  upon 
the  size  and  form  of  buildings. 

Some  of  these  points  may  be  mentioned  in  detail. 

The  basements  of  buildings  should  be  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  ten  feet  in  height  and  not  more  than 
three  or  four  feet  below  ground.  The  area  should 
not  be  chopped  up  into  little  rooms,  but  so  divided 
as  to  furnish  adequate  facilities  for  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  or  gymnasium  work.  The  elemen- 
tary schoolrooms  ought  to  be  about  24x32,  and 
i2l/2  feet  in  height,  with  the  seats  so  arranged 
that  no  child  will  be  more  than  thirty  feet  from 
the  blackboard.  The  general  rule  for  determin- 
ing the  width  of  the  room  is  to  make  it  twice  the 
height  of  the  window  tops  from  the  floor.  Long 
experience  has  shown  that  by  such  a  relation  proper 
lighting  can  be  secured  when  the  rooms  receive  their 
light  from  one  side.  The  color  of  the  walls  should 
be  light  gray  or  light  buff.  The  red  end  of  the 
spectrum  should  never  be  chosen  for  colors,  but 
rather  the  white  end.  Perhaps,  one  of  the  most 


66  The  Making  of  a  Town 

important  features  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  the  fact 
that  no  schoolroom  should  be  decorated  on  the  basis 
of  home  color  ideas,  since  the  whole  surroundings 
and  point  of  view  of  the  schoolroom  are  totally  dif- 
ferent from  those  that  prevail  in  the  house.  The 
purpose  of  subduing  the  colors  is  to  relieve  the  eyes 
from  strain,  and  in  many  schools  this  is  materially 
helped  by  placing  unbleached  muslin  over  black- 
boards when  not  in  use.  The  woods  that  are  used 
should  retain,  so  far  as  possible,  their  natural  color, 
and  should  not  receive  high  polish  or  finish,  since 
that  reflects  light  as  well  as  shows  the  dust.  The 
deadening  of  floors  by  the  use  of  asbestos  not  only 
saves  the  floor  but  renders  it  difficult  to  hear  the 
movement  of  classes  from  below. 

Since  mechanical  draft  is  now  resorted  to  as  a 
means  of  ventilation,  transoms  should  not  be  placed 
over  doors,  and  it  is  a  question  also  whether  doors 
leading  out  of  classrooms  should  have  glass  in  them, 
since  it  is  likely  to  be  broken,  and,  what  is  more,  adds 
to  the  possibility  of  the  accumulation  of  dust.  The 
question  of  ventilation,  though,  is  by  no  means  set- 
tled. The  author  of  an  article  entitled  "Stuffy 
Rooms"  in  the  November  number  of  the  Popular 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      67 

Science  Monthly  throws  much  doubt  on  current 
theories  of  ventilation.  Discriminating  and  careful 
use  of  windows,  aided  by  electric  fans  in  each  room, 
furnishes  a  very  satisfactory  method  of  ventilating 
schoolrooms. 

In  the  rooms  arranged  for  the  grades,  the  cloak- 
rooms should  be  in  the  rear  of  the  classrooms  and 
opening  upon  them  with  a  door  at  each  end.  This 
gives  the  teacher  complete  control  of  the  room  and 
makes  it  possible  to  enter  and  pass  out  without  con- 
fusion, leaving  no  possibility  of  entrance  from  the 
outside  hall.  Various  specific  arrangements  for 
pupils  should  be  found  in  the  provision  of  pigeon- 
holes for  their  overshoes,  lockers  placed  in  special 
rooms  in  the  basement,  and  suitable  conveniences  in 
well  located  toilet  rooms. 

It  is  now  pretty  well  accepted  that  no  schoolhouse 
is  well  planned  that  does  not  have  an  adequate 
assembly  room,  which,  whenever  possible,  should  be 
placed  on  the  ground  floor.  This  unquestionably 
introduces  new  problems  of  architecture,  but  as  we 
are  recognizing  also  the  larger  use  of  the  school- 
house  as  a  phase  of  democracy,  there  ought  to  be 
no  question  in  the  minds  of  boards  of  education 


68  The  Making  of  a  Town 

as  to  what  should  be  done  when  new  buildings  are 
erected. 

The  larger  vision  that  has  been  vouchsafed  to 
the  teaching  profession  in  these  later  years,  and  in 
some  degree  to  the  patrons  of  the  school,  has  made 
material  demands  for  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
equipment  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  thus  visioned. 
The  utilization  of  mechanical  means,  in  the  resort 
to  power-driven  fans,  has  fairly  well  solved  the  diffi- 
culties of  ventilation,  while  the  problems  of  sanita- 
tion through  the  adoption  of  modern  plumbing  have 
been  met  by  the  turning  to  good  account  of  water 
as  an  agent  for  sanitary  purposes.  Only  within  a 
short  time  has  it  dawned  upon  directors  of  school 
affairs  that  children  are  of  different  sizes,  and  as  a 
consequence  adjustable  seats  have  been  brought  into 
the  better  equipped  schools.  These  seats  are  of  dif- 
ferent patterns  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupil, 
and  their  use  should  result  in  a  material  decline  of 
spinal  dislocations  and  many  other  minor  mal- 
developments  of  the  physical  side  of  the  pupil. 

Libraries,  too,  as  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the 
school,  have  long  been  used,  but  not  so  extendedly 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      69 

as  an  important  agency  in  instruction  as  in  recent 
years.  In  some  communities  the  tendency  is  to  go 
farther  and  establish  libraries  within  the  schools  for 
loan  purposes,  with  the  idea  of  permitting  the 
books  to  be  taken  to  the  homes  of  the  pupils  and 
kept  there  for  a  short  time  by  the  patrons  of  the 
school.  Here  and  there  small  groups  of  photo- 
graphs have  been  brought  together  and  placed  in 
folders.  These  photographs,  illustrative  of  great 
works  of  art,  of  the  better  types  of  buildings,  and 
the  noblest  paintings  that  have  been  made  by  man, 
have  circulated  among  the  people  of  the  community, 
and  the  art  room  has  now  come  to  be  a  feature  of 
school  life  that  grows  in  importance  as  its  possibilities 
are  recognized. 

As  a  people  we  have  neglected  music  as  an  educa- 
tional factor;  the  phonograph  in  one  form  or  another 
has  brought  us  back  to  the  possibilities  of  musical 
education  at  small  expense.  As  the  school  becomes 
more  and  more  a  social  center  where  educational 
work  and  lectures  are  carried  on  for  adults,  the 
phonograph  will  proceed  to  larger  and  larger  uses, 
not  only  there,  but  in  the  classroom  as  well. 

The  object  of  all  this  building  and  equipment  is 


70  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  pupil  and  his  training.  He  comes  to  school  from 
a  great  variety  of  home  life  and  surroundings,  with 
marked  differences  in  his  physical,  moral,  and  intel- 
lectual care.  While  it  is  true  that  the  school  is 
looked  upon  as  a  most  important  means  of  control- 
ling the  future  of  the  state,  nevertheless  it  should  be 
clearly  kept  in  mind  that,  while  it  can  do  much  in 
advancing  temperance,  thrift,  chastity,  and  civic 
responsibility,  there  is  no  "  radical  cure  for  degen- 
eration," as  Professor  Giddings  has  well  said,  "  but 
in  a  pure  and  sane  family  life  which  disciplines  the 
welcome  and  untainted  child  into  robust  virtue  and 
self-control,  and  in  an  unswerving  allegiance  to 
duty."  There  arises  consequently  the  necessity  of  a 
real  cooperation  of  the  home  and  school.  This,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  brought  about  by  the  subordination 
of  the  home,  but  must  be  secured  by  the  parents 
undertaking  to  do  their  part  in  associating  the  child 
with  racial  ideals.  Without  doubt  uthe  strongest 
constructive  factor  in  the  education  of  the  human 
being  is  the  settled,  quiet  order  of  home."  There  is, 
however,  a  marked  movement  toward  a  closer  rela- 
tionship between  the  school  and  the  home  in  the 
spirit  of  cooperation  brought  about  through  the  visits 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      71 

of  the  parents  to  the  school  and  of  the  teachers  to 
the  homes.  Undoubtedly  the  time  will  arrive  when 
everywhere,  as  it  is  now  in  some  places,  an  addi- 
tional visiting  teacher  will  be  employed  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  securing  a  helpful  relation  between  the 
home  and  the  school;  and  in  consequence  the  phys- 
ical, moral,  and  intellectual  care  of  the  child  will 
be  shared  by  the  home  and  the  school. 

In  the  old  days  no  effort  was  made  to  detect  phys- 
ical weaknesses  in  the  pupil,  but  in  the  more  modern 
type  of  school  medical  inspection  of  school  children 
is  coming  rapidly  to  the  front,  with  a  follow-up  nurse 
system.  Recent  investigations  have  revealed  that 
more  than  half  of  the  school  children  are  hampered 
in  one  way  or  another  by  physical  defects.  The 
ascertainment  of  these  at  an  early  period  in  the  life 
of  the  child  means  a  saving  of  expense  to  the  public 
school  system  as  well  as  a  material  betterment  of  the 
child's  condition,  which  becomes  more  marked  as  he 
grows  older. 

Associated  with  this  problem  of  physical  care  is 
also  the  one  of  moral  direction.  This  is  an  exceed- 
ingly difficult  question,  but  the  conditions  in  some 
schools  demand  closest  watching  and  careful  over- 


72  The  Making  of  a  Town 

sight  on  the  part  of  principals  and  teachers  in  order 
to  prevent  a  wholesale  development  of  immorality. 
The  instillation  of  moral  principles  and  high  ideals 
is  a  matter  of  everyday  instruction,  together  with 
their  presentation  through  lessons,  in  reading,  his- 
tory, and  science.  In  Germany  steps  have  already 
been  taken  to  present  some  of  the  simpler  phases  of 
sex-hygiene,  and  the  way  should  be  opened  in  every 
school  in  America  to  an  early  establishment  of 
similar  instruction. 

The  course  of  study  which  exists  in  any  school 
system  is  always  a  complicated  matter,  far  more  so 
than  most  people  are  aware,  since  it  is  related  to  race 
experience.  The  interest  of  children  in  vocational 
work  of  various  kinds  is  due  almost  wholly  to  an 
inherited  race  point  of  view  rather  than  to  any  method 
of  presenting  such  instruction  as  a  matter  of  tools 
and  of  tasks.  The  demand  for  changes  and  addi- 
tions is  so  great  that  the  danger  to  the  course  of 
study  in  our  public  schools  is  from  its  overloading 
rather  than  in  its  failure  to  present  enough.  Already 
there  has  come  to  the  front  an  insistent  request  for 
modification  of  courses  and  rearrangement  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  work.  One  of  the  sugges- 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools     73 

tions  which  have  been  made  is  that  a  change,  and 
quite  a  marked  one,  ought  to  take  place  after  the 
sixth  grade  in  the  methods  of  :nstruction.  Then 
follows  a  period  of  three  years,  regarded  as  a  unit, 
with  an  additional  three  years  as  a  second  unit 
completing  the  twelve  grades.  The  point  in  this 
suggestion  is  that  pupils,  especially  boys,  should 
have  a  new  point  of  view  at  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thirteen,  and  that  this  point  of  view  should  again 
be  changed  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen.  This 
method  has  been  followed  in  some  of  the  European 
schools  and  has  the  advantage  of  meeting  the  condi- 
tions more  than  the  plan  now  generally  in  vogue. 
It  has  also  been  suggested  that  promotion  by  grade 
should  cease  after  the  sixth  year,  and  instruction 
be  by  subject  while  the  pupils  are  in  charge  of  what 
is  called  a  mother-teacher.  This  teacher  is  so  called 
because  she  looks  after  the  pupils  in  the  study 
periods  and  directs  their  work,  thus  continuing  the 
element  of  personality,  so  important  in  elementary 
and  secondary  instruction.  Discussion  of  a  topic 
like  that  of  a  curriculum  might  well  take  all  of  the 
pages  of  a  book  instead  of  a  paragraph  in  a  chap- 
ter; still  something  may  be  said  to  indicate  the  new 


74  The  Making  of  a  Town 

point  of  view.  In  some  schools  special  teachers  have 
been  delegated  to  help  those  who  are  behind  in  their 
work,  on  the  supposition  that  it  is  better  to  open  the 
way  than  to  see  the  pupil  fall  by  the  wayside,  while 
the  arrangement  of  subject-matter  and  character  of 
instruction  have  been  changed  to  correspond  with 
the  principles  of  child  development. 

As  a  term  applied  to  school  children,  retardation 
has  to  do  with  pupils  who,  by  reason  of  physical  or 
mental  defects  and  poor  instruction,  have  failed  to 
maintain  their  grades.  It  would  seem  hardly  neces- 
sary to  urge  superintendents  to  ascertain  a  fact  of 
this  character,  but  in  very  few  school  systems  have 
retardation  charts  been  worked  out  "  Only  half  of 
the  children  who  enter  the  first  grades  complete  the 
eighth  grade,"  says  one.  Interpreted  in  figures  it 
seems  that  in  Chicago  89  per  cent  of  those  entering 
the  first  grade  reach  the  sixth  grade,  73  per  cent  the 
seventh  grade,  and  a  few  over  50  per  cent  finish  the 
eighth  grade.  The  method  of  determining  the  num- 
ber of  retarded  children  in  any  school  system  is  to 
enumerate  the  children  by  ages  and  grades,  and  place 
all  of  those  who  are  older  than  a  determined  age  in 
each  grade  into  a  group  called  "above  normal  age" 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools     75 

or  "retarded."  If  children  enter  the  first  grade  at 
the  age  of  six  and  a  half  years,  and  are  not  retarded 
during  their  course,  their  ages  will  be  as  follows  in 
the  grades: 

TABLE 

First  grade 6  to    8  years 

Second  "     7  to  9  " 

Third  "     8  to  10  " 

Fourth  "     9  to  ii  " 

Fifth  "     10  to  12  " 

Sixth  "     ii  to  13  " 

Seventh               12  to  14  " 

Eighth  "     13  to  15  u 

Ninth  "     14  to  16  " 

Tenth  "     15  to  17  " 

Eleventh  "     16  to  18  " 

Twelfth  "     17  to  19  " 

With  such  a  guide  for  the  standard  of  retardation, 
a  chart  can  be  made  to  show  what  the  conditions  are 
in  every  grade  of  the  school  system.  In  the  chart 
given  below  the  facts  are  shown  so  clearly  and  con- 
clusively that  the  school  board  to  which  they  were 
shown  were  convinced  not  only  of  the  need  of  an 
additional  teacher,  but  also  of  the  wisdom  of  creat- 
ing a  junior  high  school  from  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades.*  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  move  of 

*  Prepared  by  Superintendent  F.  L.  Whitney,  of  the  Grafton, 
North  Dakota,  Public  Schools. 


The  Making  of  a  Town 


the  school  authorities  not  only  corresponded  with 
the  facts  of  the  chart,  but  also  agreed  with  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  need  of  a  change  in  form  of  instruc- 
tion at  the  twelfth  to  thirteenth  years,  as  stated  in 
the  paragraph  above.  Perhaps  it  should  be  added 
that  a  man  was  selected  for  the  principalship  of 
the  junior  high  school. 

RETARDATION  CHART 


GRADE 

Age 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

I9 

10 

11 

12 

Total 

6 

49 
6 

8 
23 

9 

4 

57 
40 

8 

2 

11 

19 

5 

37 

9 

ej 

22 

6 

33 

10 

6 

11 

14 

12 

43 

11 

f] 

£ 

r\ 
t 

^ 

20 

8 

37 

12 

C 

£ 

—5 

11 

12 

i 

35 

13 

i 

7 

~6 

17 

i 

53 

14 

t 

5 

"12 

9 

22 

10 

60 

15 

1 

1 

7 

"6 

14 

10 

9 

1 

49 

16 

1 

1 

10 

c 

14 

9 

4 

48 

17 

hj 

—5 

8 

11 

27 

18 

1 

2 

^ 

6 

8 

22 

19 

2 

2 

4 

20 

1 

1 

21 

0 

21+ 

1 

1 

Total 

57 

42 

42 

47 

40 

56 

58 

44 

56 

44 

34 

27 

547 

Retarded,  i.  e., 
above  normal  age 

2 

0 

9 

7 

15 

13 

21 

16 

15 

10 

8 

2 

118 

Per  cent  retarded 

3.5 

0 

21.4 

4.8 

37.5 

23.2 

36.2 

6.3 

26.7 

2.7 

3.5 

7.4 

21.5 

The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      77 

Of  the  many  devices  suggested  to  meet  the  prob- 
lem of  retardation,  the  public  summer  school  has 
much  to  commend  it,  not  only  as  a  means  of  helping 
backward  pupils,  but  of  introducing  the  children  to 
the  industrial  processes  with  which  the  race  has 
become  familiar  in  its  upward  movement.  This  time 
can  be  used  for  instruction  in  woodwork,  basket- 
making,  sewing,  domestic  science,  and  in  some  cases 
vocational  subjects  along  trade  lines  can  be  taught, 
with  the  main  purpose  of  arousing  intelligence.  The 
public  playground  when  used  as  supplementary  to 
the  summer  public  school  has  added  much  to  the  suc- 
cess of  summer  instruction;  nor  is  this  to  be  taken  as 
a  belittling  attitude  toward  the  matter  of  play- 
grounds, for  they  are  useful  agencies  through  which 
the  principles  of  law,  order,  and  discipline  can  be 
well  taught,  but  rather  to  show  the  advantage  of  co- 
ordinating them  with  instruction  at  the  time  of  the 
child's  most  active  play.  For  play  is  Nature's  way  of 
building  up  power,  without  which  the  town  child 
lacks  staying  qualities.  In  order  that  play  may  count 
in  the  course  of  education,  it  must  be  maintained  on  a 
permanent  basis.  This  means  a  permanent  staff  and 
a  permanent  play  center.  One  institution  only  is 


78  The  Making  of  a  Town 

capable  of  maintaining  play  on  this  basis,  and  that  is 
the  school.  Moreover,  to  bring  about  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  play  center  as  an  educational  factor  the 
community  must  have  confidence  in  the  supervision, 
and  this  also  points  to  the  school. 

A  recognition  of  the  problems  that  have  been 
referred  to  as  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  brings 
clearly  to  the  front  the  importance  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  perhaps  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  in  the 
opinion  of  many  men  well  qualified  to  present  their 
views  there  is  no  more  important  individual  in  the 
community  than  the  teacher,  but  in  general  there  is 
no  great  recognition  that  he  is  dealing  with  the  most 
vital  interests  of  the  community.  The  teacher  comes 
in  contact  with  social  conditions,  knows  when  illness 
exists  in  the  families  of  the  school  children,  when 
industrial  calamities  have  fallen  upon  the  people, 
and,  in  fact,  is  entrusted  with  the  most  important 
elements  in  our  social  and  national  development.  The 
attitude  toward  the  teacher  has  not  fully  recognized 
his  place  in  the  community,  as  shown  by  payment  for 
services.  The  average  salary  of  the  teacher  in  the 
United  States  today  is  $53.88  per  month,  and  it  will 
not  be  until  we  have  given  him  a  longer  tenure  of 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      79 

office  with  a  higher  salary  that  we  can  expect  the 
best  men  to  come  in  to  take  places  as  schoolmasters. 
Yet  the  demands  for  better  training  and  bigger  per- 
sonality, which  are  more  pressing  today  than  ever 
before,  and  the  number  of  children  in  the  schools 
necessitates  marked  insistence  upon  better  training, 
better  facilities,  and  greater  opportunity. 

The  administration  of  the  schools  has  been  in 
the  main  placed  in  the  hands  of  boards,  usually  con- 
sisting of  comparatively  small  numbers  of  persons, 
though  there  are  exceptions  to  this  statement.  There 
ought  to  be  in  every  community  a  school  board, 
whose  authority  is  as  wide  as  that  of  the  community, 
independent  of  city  councils  or  county  commissioners, 
with  authority  to  expend  money  and  to  levy  taxes 
within  their  jurisdiction.  The  support  of  the  public 
schools  amounts  to  one-fourth  or  one-third  of  the 
total  cost  of  local  government,  and  the  funds  are 
raised  by  apportionment  from  the  commonwealth 
school  funds,  state  taxes,  and  local  taxes.  A  term  of 
office  ought  to  be  from  three  to  five  years  rather 
than  for  a  less  period,  and  the  number  of  the  board 
might  well  be  fixed  at  seven  rather  than  a  smaller  or 
larger  number.  In  their  hands  should  be  placed  the 


80  The  Making  of  a  Town 

trusteeship  of  the  schools.  They  are  the  business 
managers  and  directors.  If  they  are  wise,  however, 
they  will  turn  over  to  a  superintendent,  selected  for 
competency,  all  the  problems  that  are  associated  with 
the  management  of  the  educational  side  of  the  school 
work,  such  as  the  selection  of  teachers  and  text- 
books, the  determination  of  courses  of  study,  equip- 
ment, and  the  like.  As  soon  as  the  school  board 
goes  into  the  business  of  selecting  apparatus  and 
school  books,  of  outlining  courses  of  study,  and 
selecting  teachers,  it  is  sure  to  engage  in  something 
for  which  its  members  have  had  no  special  training 
and  for  which  they  are  not  well  adapted.  The 
community  looks  to  it  to  maintain  efficiency,  and  to 
do  this  through  competent  management,  direction, 
and  oversight,  rather  than  through  the  care  of 
specific  details. 

Slowly  the  school  boards  of  the  country  are  com- 
ing to  recognize  the  important  fact  that  the  school 
is  essentially  the  savior  of  American  democracy 
when  closely  affiliated  with  the  home;  that  it  has  an 
unusual  opportunity  to  widen  the  scope  of  education 
and  to  extend  it  from  the  instruction  of  children  in 
their  infancy  and  teens  to  the  instruction  of  adults  in 


The  Second  Fundamental  —  Schools      81 

many  important  matters.  It  may  be  urged  that  such 
a  tendency  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  schools,  but 
looking  to  Europe  we  will  find  that  in  many  coun- 
tries—  in  Denmark  and  Germany,  for  instance  — 
are  to  be  found  schools  for  adults  conducted  in  the 
evening  under  the  direction  of  school  boards.  Such 
utilization  of  the  school  will  mean  much  in  the 
enlargement  of  the  point  of  view  of  the  community 
and  in  the  development  of  a  more  intelligent  attitude 
toward  all  the  problems  of  the  community  and  of 
the  state. 


THE  THIRD  FUNDAMENTAL— MORALS 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  THIRD  FUNDAMENTAL — MORALS 

THERE  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  a 
definite  code  for  the  moral  guidance  of  the 
individual.  Upon  this  point  the  public  is  fairly 
clear,  looking  to  the  acceptance  of  axioms  and  rules 
of  conduct  as  the  basis  of  this  view.  But  the  code  for 
public  guidance  is  still  more  or  less  indefinite.  It  is 
not  so  clear  as  it  should  be  to  men  in  the  community 
that  there  ought  to  be  a  communalized  morality,  for 
clean  living  and  clean  thinking  apply  to  the  com- 
munity quite  as  much  as  to  the  individual,  each  hav- 
ing a  conscience.  Many  citizens  are  good  providers, 
agreeable  fathers  and  kindly  neighbors,  without 
understanding  that  there  is  any  larger  obligation 
upon  them.  Despite  this  general  condition,  evidences 
are  to  be  seen  now  and  then  of  an  enlarged  sense  of 
social  morality  creeping  into  the  point  of  view  of 
even  the  most  backward  communities.  The  "per- 
sonal liberty"  argument,  heard  so  often  in  the  past 


86  The  Making  of  a  Town 

and  used  so  freely  to  justify  individual  departures 
from  the  path  of  rectitude,  is  now  met  by  the  state- 
ment that  the  community  has  a  standard  of  conduct 
and  that  there  is  really  a  social  test  to  be  applied 
to  its  attitude  on  moral  questions  which  touches  the 
action  of  individuals. 

The  argument  for  the  wide-open  town  as  being 
good  for  trade  carried  much  weight  in  commercial 
bodies  fifteen  or  more  years  ago,  because  it  was  said 
men  will  come  to  buy  where  there  is  to  be  some 
excitement  and  dissipation.  But  it  has  been  learned 
since  that  the  business  of  the  town  where  such  an 
attitude  is  taken  is  quite  as  likely  to  lead  to  suspicion 
of  its  good-will  as  to  the  increase  of  its  reputation  for 
being  a  joymaker.  Moreover,  it  has  been  discovered 
that  it  is  harder  to  collect  debts  and  sell  goods  for 
cash  where  conditions  of  that  kind  prevail  than  it  is 
in  a  community  where  law  and  order  are  the  rule. 
The  question  of  what  shall  be  the  attitude  of  the 
community  toward  the  disturbing  element  collected 
in  every  town  is  not  solely  a  matter  of  business;  it  is 
a  community  question  and  a  church  question;  the 
latter  because  the  church  represents  the  higher 
standards  of  moral  attitude. 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       87 

It  has  never  been  discovered  that  the  men  inter- 
ested in  the  maintenance  of  the  open  town  are  really 
concerned  about  the  future  of  the  community.  Their 
point  of  view  is  to  secure  as  much  money  as  they  can 
from  the  people  who  come  to  them.  The  amuse- 
ments, disorderly  houses,  and  even  theaters  are 
made  to  yield  a  by-product  that  will  draw  cash  to 
their  coffers.  Moreover,  an  attitude  of  this  kind 
usually  brings  about  an  alliance  between  the  ele- 
ments that  make  for  disorder  and  the  government. 
The  result  is  that  there  creeps  in  an  insidious  influ- 
ence toward  increased  cost  of  community  manage- 
ment, and  materially  lowered  efficiency  of  govern- 
ment and  business  enterprise. 

Any  community  which  permits  the  maintenance  of 
saloons,  gambling  dens,  blind  pigs,  disorderly  houses, 
low  theaters,  poolrooms,  and  disreputable  vaude- 
villes is  bound  to  pay  the  price.  Not  only  as  sug- 
gested in  the  paragraph  above,  but  in  serious  home 
problems  regarding  the  boy,  and  even  the  girl,  as 
well  as  having  greater  difficulty  in  the  discipline  of 
the  schools.  It  is  true  that  these  excrescences  of 
modern  civilization  can  remain  in  a  community  under 
police  surveillance  and  cater  in  a  way  to  what  might 


88  The  Making  of  a  Town 

be  called  the  lower  elements  in  the  town.  The  saloon 
may  even  be  conducted  on  a  fairly  respectable  basis, 
and  during  the  existence  of  the  old  type  of  saloon, 
where  the  owner  was  manager  and  host,  there  was 
something  to  be  said  on  this  point.  But  in  these 
days  of  the  "  line  saloon,"  managed  from  a  city  far 
away,  and  under  the  direct  charge  of  men  of  no 
reputation,  it  becomes  a  distinct  menace  to  the  com- 
munity, not  only  as  a  source  of  temptation  to  young 
men,  but  often  as  a  rendezvous  of  criminals.  The 
gambling  den  and  the  disorderly  house  are  direct 
offspring  of  the  saloon.  They  work  together,  one 
fitting  in  with  the  other,  while  further  down  the  list 
are  to  be  found  the  low  theaters  and  the  poolrooms 
—  all  joined  in  the  endeavor  to  produce  material  for 
the  main  hopper.  So,  too,  the  vulgar  performances 
of  the  vaudeville  show  tend  to  pull  down  the  stand- 
ards of  morality,  to  increase  the  curiosity  of  young 
persons,  and  in  time  to  force  them  into  the  road  that 
leads  through  the  poolroom  and  the  low  theater  to 
the  gambling  den,  the  saloon,  and  the  disorderly 
house. 

The  law  everywhere  provides  at  least  the  working 
machinery  for  controlling  these  community  menaces, 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       89 

but  under  the  influence  of  uncertain  public  opinion 
upon  moral  questions  of  a  community  character  the 
usual  attitude  has  been  to  allow  them  to  drift  along 
under  some  plan  of  occasional  fines  or  infrequent 
arrests  of  managers.  In  some  instances  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  disorderly  house,  because  of  its 
example,  should  be  segregated  from  the  rest  of  the 
community,  yet  at  the  same  time  be  allowed  to  have 
a  sort  of  legal  existence  under  the  law.  This  point 
has  been  well  covered  by  Professor  Charles  R.  Hen- 
derson in  a  publication  issued  by  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  when  he  states  that  "so  long  as  public 
opinion  remains  what  it  is  the  business  of  prostitu- 
tion can  never  be  made  in  any  sense  legal;  it  cannot 
be  openly  recognized  as  legitimate;  it  cannot  be 
licensed;  it  cannot  in  any  way  secure  legal  standing 
before  the  courts;  the  wages  of  the  harlot  cannot  be 
collected  by  suit  at  law;  the  landlord  who  rents  a 
house  for  such  purposes  is  liable  to  prosecution.  Any 
attempt  to  introduce  such  laws  as  those  which  are  in 
force  in  some  countries  of  continental  Europe  would 
ruin  the  social  and  political  career  of  any  legisla- 
ture." While  it  is  true  that  there  have  been  a  few 
instances  of  attempts  at  the  license  system,  yet  the 


90  The  Making  of  a  Town 

attitude  in  America  is  distinctly  against  any  such 
method.  Nor  is  toleration  to  be  accepted  as  an  atti- 
tude that  could  in  any  measure  receive  the  endorse- 
ment of  a  self-respecting  community.  There  remains 
in  consequence  only  one  method  of  dealing  with  the 
problem,  and  that  is  through  increased  police  vigi- 
lance to  enforce  the  law  wherever  prostitution  raises 
its  head. 

There  are,  however,  certain  preventive  measures 
which  can  be  developed  in  a  community  against  the 
social  evil  through  education,  greater  recreation,  bet- 
ter economic  conditions,  and  in  provision  for  institu- 
tional care  of  those  who  are  the  victims  of  the  sys- 
tem. The  first  may  be  brought  about  by  the  serious 
attention  of  school  authorities  to  moral  standards, 
the  development  of  domestic  science  as  a  home- 
making  factor,  and  the  better  grading  of  children  in 
the  schools.  The  second  may  be  secured  by  play- 
grounds, provision  for  athletics,  public  baths,  and 
comfort  stations,  the  development  of  social  centers, 
the  supervision  of  theaters,  and  the  establishment  of 
municipal  dancing  halls  under  proper  regulation. 
When  it  comes  to  the  third  point,  employers  can  do 
something  in  making  the  conditions  of  employment 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       91 

better,  particularly  in  the  instance  of  young  girls, 
and  by  promoting  higher  ideals  relative  to  efficiency, 
health,  and  morals,  and  refusing  to  employ  very 
young  girls  and  boys  for  services  in  their  concerns. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  towns  where  many  young 
women  resort  for  employment  there  can  be  main- 
tained through  the  utilization  of  the  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association  considerable  oversight  over  the 
welfare  of  working  girls  and  young  women.  No 
community,  however,  is  likely  to  make  progress  in 
these  matters  unless  it  is  eternally  vigilant.  It  must 
back  its  police  force,  insist  upon  efficiency  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  maintain 
opportunities  for  amusement  and  recreation  open  to 
young  people  after  the  hours  of  labor. 

In  the  consideration  of  forms  of  amusement  main- 
tained for  profit,  the  town  councils  should  establish 
ordinances  that  will  insist  upon  the  proper  conduct 
of  them.  The  theaters  and  poolrooms  should  be 
closed  on  Sunday  and  at  an  early  hour  on  week  days, 
but  in  doing  this  the  community  should  remember 
that  it  is  necessary  to  put  in  their  place  some  substi- 
tute; in  fact,  that  the  time  should  be  regarded  as  an 
opportunity  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  a  large  group 


92  The  Making  of  a  Town 

of  young  men  and  women  some  of  the  higher  ideals 
of  living.  Whatever  may  be  said  relative  to  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  Americans  to  give  over  the 
church-going  habits  of  their  forefathers,  it  neverthe- 
less remains  true  that  Sunday  is  a  day  that  should 
be  devoted  to  personal  uplift  of  both  a  physical  and 
religious  kind.  We  are  told  sometimes  that  the  con- 
tinental Sunday  is  creeping  in  upon  us ;  but  the  conti- 
nental Sunday  has  been  marked  by  two  things  which 
do  not  appear  in  the  American  attitude  toward  the 
first  day  of  the  week.  In  Europe,  Sunday  morning 
is  devoted  to  church  services  and  is  sacred  to  them, 
while  the  afternoon  is  given  over  to  the  family  unit. 
It  is  then  that  the  family  rules,  and  as  a  unit  it  goes 
into  the  open  to  enjoy  the  summer  afternoon  or  in 
the  winter  finds  its  way  to  the  theater.  In  America 
there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  neglect  the  church 
and  to  overlook  the  family  as  a  unit.  Consequently 
the  utilization  of  Sunday  as  a  day  in  which  to  present 
ideals  that  will  uplift  is  an  opportunity  that  should 
be  seized  eagerly  in  every  community.  The  utiliza- 
tion of  Sunday  afternoon  for  the  presentation  of 
music  of  a  high  character  can  undoubtedly  be  brought 
about  in  nearly  every  community.  It  has  been  argued 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       93 

that  such  a  movement  breaks  down  the  opposition  to 
the  opening  of  poolrooms  and  theaters  on  that  day, 
but  in  reality  there  is  no  basis  for  such  a  view.  Music 
is  a  wonderful  factor  in  the  life  of  the  community,  a 
fact  that  we  are  just  beginning  to  realize  in  America. 
Sunday  evening  finds  a  large  number  of  people  with- 
out church  connections  seeking  some  utilization  of 
their  time.  In  several  cities  the  idea  of  a  People's 
Sunday  Evening  has  been  tried,  with  the  result  that 
it  has  demonstrated  its  place  and  work.  Says  one, 
reporting  upon  these  results:  "Three  things  have 
taken  place:  first,  we  have  learned  much  regarding 
the  people  we  desired  to  help ;  second,  the  masses  are 
ready  to  listen  to  the  truth  if  presented  in  a  manner 
free  from  bias  and  bigotry;  third,  the  meetings  have 
been  the  greatest  force  ever  undertaken  here  to  teach 
non-churchgoers  that  the  church  really  cares  for 
them  in  a  practical  as  well  as  a  spiritual  way."  As  a 
consequence,  the  community  has  begun  to  think  of 
religion  in  a  new  light  and  its  effects  have  reached  into 
the  everyday  life  of  the  people.  In  some  places  lectures 
of  a  more  secular  character  might  be  provided;  lec- 
tures that  would  deal  with  the  things  that  are  being 
done  in  other  communities  —  some  of  the  problems 


94  The  Making  of  a  Town 

arising  from  evolution,  the  work  of  great  men  for 
the  uplift  of  humanity,  and  other  subjects  that  may 
suggest  themselves. 

This  larger  sense  of  social  solidarity  that  has  come 
into  vogue  with  the  opening  of  the  new  century  has 
brought  with  it  what  is  called  the  school  social  cen- 
ter. Two  things  have  emphasized  the  enlargement 
of  the  social  center  idea  —  one  that  we  have  a  great 
capitalization  lying  idle  in  the  schoolhouses  of  the 
country,  and  the  other  that  we  have  lost  much 
through  our  failure  to  get  together  as  compared  with 
the  social  activities  of  the  old  pioneer  days.  So,  out 
of  these  two  ideas,  with  the  further  feeling  that 
democracy  must  mean  solidarity,  the  social  center  has 
evolved.  The  principle  of  the  movement  has  been 
understood  in  Europe  for  a  long  time,  especially  in 
Denmark.  The  idea  is  to  utilize  the  schoolhouse  in 
the  Evenings  for  social  and  intellectual  purposes,  to 
establish  there  lectures  that  will  be  of  interest  to  the 
citizens  of  the  community,  and  to  have  other  means 
of  entertainment  and  amusement,  to  create  a  forum 
where  people  can  gather  in  the  evening  to  discuss 
any  problem  that  may  be  of  interest  to  them.  The 
whole  purpose  is  distinctly  educational.  The  utiliza- 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       95 

tion  of  the  schoolhouse  as  the  center  of  this  activity, 
however,  is  not  an  easy  matter.  To  make  it  a  suc- 
cess there  must  be  some  individual  with  a  clear  vision 
behind  the  movement,  otherwise  it  will  fail  of  its 
purpose.  In  connection  with  it  various  clubs  can  be 
established,  one  to  watch  the  town  government  and 
to  discuss  its  needs,  and  another  to  read  poetry  or  to 
study  science.  By  affiliating  the  town  library  to  the 
movement  the  right  sort  of  material  can  be  secured 
in  fiction  as  well  as  science  for  the  use  of  club 
members.  Occasional  plays  under  the  auspices  of  the 
social  center  can  be  presented,  plays  of  good  charac- 
ter and  that  are  amusing.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
artists  be  imported  from  abroad,  for  without  doubt 
there  can  be  found  among  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity latent  talent  that  had  not  been  suspected 
before. 

A  few  years  ago  it  was  hardly  thought  that  the 
universities  would  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  com- 
munity seeking  an  outlet  for  its  social  and  intellectual 
energy.  The  development  of  the  university  exten- 
sion idea,  however,  has  proven  to  be  an  exception- 
ally useful  ally  to  the  town  working  to  maintain  a 
higher  standard  of  living.  In  nearly  all  the  states 


96  The  Making  of  a  Town 

universities,  founded  by  public  action  and  supported 
by  public  funds,  are  departments  engaged  in  bring- 
ing to  the  people  of  the  different  communities  an 
opportunity  to  utilize  the  mass  of  knowledge  and 
even  the  equipment  of  the  university,  so  that  the 
efforts  made  here  and  there  to  uplift  social  standards 
have  now  a  means  and  a  facility  through  which  they 
can  accomplish  great  results.  It  may  be  that  by 
more  careful  thinking  out  of  the  problem  the  social 
center  will  become  firmly  established  in  the  school 
system  and  the  universities  of  the  states  will  be  able 
to  furnish  all  that  is  demanded  in  the  way  of  assist- 
ance. 

There  is,  however,  another  problem  closely 
affiliated  with  the  existence  of  the  saloon  which  is 
quite  as  much  of  a  social  problem  as  that  which  finds 
its  center  in  the  schoolhouse.  For  many  years  the 
saloon  has  provided  meeting  places  for  men,  and  it 
still  continues  to  play  a  considerable  part  in  the 
social  life  of  many  towns,  villages,  and  cities.  "  It  is 
apparent,  for  one  thing,"  says  the  Committee  of 
Fifty,  "  that  there  are  not  many  centers  of  recreation 
and  amusement  open  at  all  hours  to  the  working 
people,  none  that  minister  to  their  comfort  in  such 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       97 

a  variety  of  ways.  The  longer  one  searches  for  just 
the  right  kind  of  a  substitute  for  the  saloon,  afford- 
ing its  conveniences  without  its  evils,  the  more  one 
despairs  of  finding  it.  And  yet  such  places  are  a 
positive  necessity  for  the  social  instinct  that  demands 
and  finds  its  satisfaction  with  the  saloon  as  a  reality. 
Work  is  not  and  was  not  meant  to  be  the  whole  of 
life.  The  leisure  problem  equals  in  importance  the 
labor  problem  and  surpasses  it  in  difficulty." 

The  saloon,  nevertheless,  varies  from  one  which 
acts  as  a  social  club  to  the  positively  immoral  type 
which  becomes  a  sort  of  conduit  through  which  pass 
off  the  lowest  forms  of  social  sewage.  Still  it  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  strongest  ties  which  unite  men,  and 
becomes,  because  of  its  location,  both  the  official 
and  unofficial  meeting  place  for  the  discussion  of 
their  interests.  In  vain  would  the  workingman  seek 
elsewhere  for  the  fellowship  and  recreation  which  he 
finds  in  the  so-called  "poor  man's  club."  While 
supplying  this  want,  it  does  a  vast  amount  of 
mischief. 

Attempts  to  control  the  saloon  through  legislation 
are  to  be  found  in  many  statute  books,  varying  from 
a  low  license  system  to  the  Gothenberg  plan  existent 


The  Making  of  a  Town 


in  Norway.  All  low  license  systems  fail,  because 
they  place  no  limitation  upon  the  attractiveness  of 
the  saloon,  nor  for  that  matter  does  the  high  license 
plan  restrict  to  any  degree  these  features,  though  it 
usually  acts  to  raise  the  tone  of  the  traffic  and  to 
eliminate  the  lower  and  more  immoral  saloons.  The 
trouble,  however,  with  any  license  system  is  that  it 
permits  the  sale  of  liquor  for  private  profit.  To 
avoid  this  difficulty  the  state  has  been  brought  into 
the  field  as  a  liquor  dealer,  as  seen  in  the  South 
Carolina  dispensary  system.  Prohibition,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  much  to  commend  it,  though  asso- 
ciated with  secret  traffic  and  backroom  drinking.  It 
is  only  when  the  private  profits  of  the  saloon  busi- 
ness are  removed  that  the  saloon  will  disappear  as  a 
social  center.  The  whole  trouble  with  the  various 
enterprises  that  have  been  created  from  time  to  time 
to  take  its  place  has  been  that  they  have  never  seri- 
ously attracted  the  attention  of  the  people,  and  the 
usual  reason  for  their  failure  is  that  they  have  taken 
too  little  account  of  man's  social  nature.  Every  town, 
village,  and  city  where  prohibition  does  not  prevail 
is  compelled  to  face  the  saloon  question,  and  in  the 


The  Third  Fundamental  —  Morals       99 

prohibition  territory  they  are  often  compelled  to  deal 
with  the  "blind  pig"  problem. 

To  attempt,  then,  to  establish  some  sort  of  social 
center  that  will  compete  with  the  saloon  requires  a 
knowledge  of  local  conditions  and  an  adherence  to  a 
plan  which  takes  into  consideration  the  social  nature 
of  man.  No  cut-and-dried  system  can  produce  this 
result.  It  is  only  through  a  long  period  of  time,  in 
cooperation  with  the  social  center  developed  round- 
about the  school,  the  enforcement  of  law,  and  a 
wider  introduction  of  a  greater  spirit  of  philanthropy 
among  the  churches  that  the  need  for  clubs  for 
workingmen  can  be  fully  met. 

The  recreation  problem,  too,  crops  out  every- 
where. Man  is  a  social  animal.  So  we  find  young 
people  seeking  places  to  dance,  where  they  may  have 
exercise  and  diversion,  and  the  community  fails  to 
meet  this  need.  Private  enterprise  comes  in  and 
establishes  dance  halls,  shooting  galleries,  billiard 
parlors,  and  the  like,  all  of  them  depending  upon 
man's  social  nature  for  their  support.  One  city  has 
recognized  this  necessity  and  established  what  has 
been  called  the  municipal  dance.  A  big,  serious 


ioo  The  Making  of  a  Town 

problem  was  met  in  a  bold  and  daring  way,  and  the 
result  has  been  a  revelation  to  all  serious-minded 
people.  The  municipal  dance  has  emphasized  democ- 
racy; it  has  emphasized  respectability;  it  has  opened 
the  way  to  a  good  time  without  any  evil  communica- 
tions. The  result  has  justified  the  effort  and  should 
be  copied  by  every  community. 

All  of  these  things  point  to  the  time  when  the 
town  will  come  to  recognize  the  fact  that  good 
morals  are  within  its  control  and  under  its  direction 
through  the  medium  of  the  proper  utilization  of 
time.  Suppress  evils  with  a  strong  hand  and  build 
up  the  right  sort  of  amusements,  even  though  under 
the  direction  of  municipal  enterprises,  and  the  com- 
munity will  invariably  have  a  new  moral  tone  that 
will  bring  results  little  understood  or  apprehended 
at  the  beginning  of  such  a  movement.  The  town  that 
reaches  such  a  point  of  view  will  begin  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  it  does  not  move  forward,  because  of 
competition  with  some  other  community,  but  because 
it  is  constantly  endeavoring  to  outdo  its  own  per- 
formances and  to  better  its  own  standards. 


THE  FOURTH  FUNDAMENTAL  — 
BUSINESS 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  FOURTH  FUNDAMENTAL — BUSINESS 

WHILE  it  is  true  that  towns  are  created  for 
business,  nevertheless  business  is  limited  by 
the  community  it  serves.  There  are  some  exceptions 
to  this  statement.  Roundabout  the  outskirts  of  large 
cities  are  towns  that  can  be  designated  as  merely 
abiding  places,  "  sleeping  communities,"  as  one  wag 
has  put  it;  and  there  are  other  instances  where  large 
manufacturing  concerns  do  not  depend  upon  the  local 
market,  but  find  the  sale  of  their  goods  extended  over 
the  whole  country.  However,  the  majority  of  busi- 
ness enterprises  discover  the  limits  of  their  size  and 
importance  in  the  extent  and  character  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  they  have  established  themselves. 
In  a  stationary  city,  one  that  is  not  moving  forward 
in  population  and  business  enterprise,  a  business  can 
be  extended  only  within  narrow  bounds,  but  in  an 
advancing  town  the  limits  of  progress  are  set  by 
those  of  the  district.  Nor  is  it  too  much  to  say  that 

103 


iO4  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  efficiency  of  a  concern  is  limited  by  the  condi- 
tions under  which  it  exists.  The  men  who  are  en- 
gaged in  it,  and  who  manage  it,  are  affected  by  the 
atmosphere,  social  life,  and  activity  of  the  com- 
munity; and  the  attitude  of  employes  rests  in  like 
measure  upon  the  economic,  sanitary,  and  moral  con- 
ditions prevailing  there.  Consequently,  every  busi- 
ness man  has  a  close  and  vital  interest  in  the  develop- 
ment of  his  community,  and  for  him  progress  in  his 
business  is  directly  associated  with  advancement  in 
the  welfare  of  the  community. 

Not  long  ago  a  little  city  of  fifteen  thousand 
inhabitants  showed  how  an  area  within  a  radius  of 
thirty-three  miles  could  have  a  larger  population, 
better  resources,  and  facilities  for  doing  business 
than  were  to  be  found  in  any  similar  area  within  four 
hundred  miles  of  it.  This  is  an  illustration  of  the 
fact  that  the  line  of  development  for  a  town  lies  in 
the  growth  of  the  district  in  which  it  is  situated. 
Examples  of  the  truth  of  this  statement  are  by  no 
means  wanting,  as  they  may  be  seen  by  any  shrewd 
observer  in  every  part  of  the  country.  In  the  cast- 
ing of  jealous  eyes  upon  larger  communities  the  small 
town  has  overlooked  the  fact  that  its  progress  is  to 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business    105 

be  found  in  the  growth  of  a  comparatively  small 
region.  If  it  cannot  manifest  its  own  importance  in 
such  a  district,  the  town  can  hardly  expect  larger 
things  in  a  more  extended  territory.  The  moral  is 
not  far  to  seek.  The  small  town  must  begin  its 
industrial  career  by  developing  the  territory  round- 
about. 

Even  in  the  older  places  to  be  found  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Central  States  there  is  much  to  be  gained  by 
careful  development  and  exploitation  of  the  imme- 
diate territory.  Every  town  is  the  center  of  an  agri- 
cultural district  greater  or  less  in  extent.  It  is  true 
that  the  success  of  manufacturing  communities  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  city  will  depend  on  the  progress 
of  the  surrounding  agricultural  territory  and  upon 
the  ability  of  the  town  to  make  it  tributary  to  it. 
It  has  been  said,  too,  that  the  amount  of  business 
that  comes  to  a  city  will  be  almost  in  proportion  to 
the  degree  of  agricultural  development  in  the  sur- 
rounding district.  Every  sort  of  method  has  been 
resorted  to  in  order  to  secure  such  a  result.  Some- 
times the  problem  has  been  one  of  attracting  settlers 
and  advertisement  has  been  the  method  resorted  to 
in  order  to  get  them  to  come  to  the  territory;  but  in 


106  The  Making  of  a  Town 

such  instances  there  must  always  be  a  real  basis  for 
agricultural  growth  or  the  advance  made  is  only 
temporary.  Much  aid  can  be  secured  by  the  wise 
utilization  of  the  publications  of  experiment  stations, 
and  of  the  work  of  experts  and  successful  farmers. 
More  particularly,  the  careful  gathering  of  informa- 
tion regarding  the  results  of  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  town,  when  given 
reading  form  in  attractive  English,  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  the  conversion  of  the  skeptical.  In- 
creased facilities,  like  good  roads,  rural  free  deliv- 
ery, the  local  library,  and  the  establishment  of  fairs 
and  market  days,  and  providing  for  good  entertain- 
ment and  social  opportunities,  are  effective  influences 
in  bringing  the  town  into  closer  touch  with  the 
people  residing  in  the  district. 

The  placing  of  the  emphasis  upon  home  trade  is 
another  method  of  producing  closer  contact  between 
the  purchasing  power  of  citizens  and  the  products 
of  the  community,  although  there  is  danger  of  carry- 
ing this  idea  to  the  point  of  forcing  individuals  to 
buy  when  it  is  against  their  own  advantage  to  do  so 
from  an  economic  point  of  view.  In  time  a  town 
grows  by  depending  upon  its  ability  to  justify  its 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business    107 

existence  as  an  economic  factor  in  the  district.  Its 
progress,  too,  will  depend  upon  its  ability  to  develop 
an  all-round  industry,  so  that  it  will  not  only  be  in  a 
position  to  supply  its  own  needs,  but,  in  addition,  be 
in  a  position  to  secure  and  continue  the  employment 
of  its  labor.  Sometimes  the  home  trade  idea  can  be 
fostered  by  giving  slight  preferences  to  the  pur- 
chasers in  the  local  market.  This  is  justifiable  on 
the  ground  of  the  saving  in  packing,  transportation, 
and  other  expenses  which  arise  in  the  case  of  ship- 
ment by  train. 

In  almost  every  community  the  statement  is  made 
that  manufacturing  plants  are  soon  to  be  brought  to 
the  community.  This  helpful  belief  is  warranted 
just  so  far  as  there  is  a  basis  for  the  statement  and 
the  wisdom  of  the  citizens  to  bring  conviction  in  the 
hearts  of  plant-owners  seeking  new  fields.  The  old 
day  of  bonuses  has,  in  a  measure,  passed  by.  The 
securing  of  factories  today  depends  almost  wholly 
upon  the  advantages  that  are  to  be  found  in  a  com- 
munity. Thus  the  possession  of  raw  materials,  the 
presence  of  an  adequate  labor  supply,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  water  power  contribute  materially  toward 
bringing  to  a  community  new  manufactures.  And  if 


io8  The  Making  of  a  Town 

to  these  are  added  adequate  markets,  with  transpor- 
tation facilities,  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  develop- 
ment of  them.  One  of  the  difficult  problems  with 
which  a  community  is  confronted  is  that  of  proper 
power,  and  in  these  days  of  electricity  it  is  coming  to 
be  recognized  that  a  central  power  plant,  a  sort  of 
power  incubator,  will  attract  in  the  long  run  a  con- 
siderable number  of  small  factories,  providing  there 
is  a  market  for  the  output.  In  order  to  get  factories 
there  must  be  clear  evidence  that  the  concerns  can 
survive,  and  perhaps  nothing  demonstrates  this  so 
clearly  as  the  actual  presence  of  successful  factories. 
So  one  of  the  things  that  a  community  ought  always 
to  do  is  to  maintain  well  what  is  already  within  its 
boundaries.  New  industries  can  be  attracted  by 
being  shown  favorable  conditions,  and  this  rests 
fundamentally  upon  a  careful  study  of  the  local  con- 
ditions as  to  the  points  that  have  been  enumerated 
above.  It  would  not  be  beyond  reason  for  a  com- 
mercial club  to  call  in  an  industrial  engineer  or  busi- 
ness expert  to  make  an  examination  of  the  facilities 
which  they  have  at  hand,  so  that  a  careful  presenta- 
tion of  them  upon  a  scientific  basis  can  be  made.  The 
day  of  stealing  plants  has  gone  by,  and  the  day  of 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business   109 

moving  plants  of  no  value  can  hardly  be  said  to  be 
at  hand.  The  purpose  nowadays  in  securing  fac- 
tories is  to  get  a  plant  that  promises  success,  one  that 
has  some  free  capital  after  buildings  and  machinery 
have  been  provided.  The  emphasis  ought  to  be 
placed  upon  small  plants  rather  than  large  ones, 
since  it  means  greater  diversity  of  industry  in  the 
long  run  and  steadier  employment  of  men.  Certain 
advantages  are  usually  held  out  to  new  concerns  in 
the  form  of  a  low  tax  rate,  adequate  labor  supply, 
good  shipping  facilities,  and,  if  necessary,  proper 
banking  support. 

There  are  various  plans  which  have  been  sug- 
gested from  time  to  time  to  aid  manufacturing  plants 
seeking  a  new  home.  One  is  by  direct  gift  of  money, 
which  is  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  the 
capital.  Another  is  by  subscriptions  to  the  stock, 
which  oftentimes  places  a  heavy  burden  upon  indi- 
viduals. A  third  is  the  guaranty  plan  of  a  certain 
percentage  of  capital  or  of  so  much  per  employe ;  for 
instance,  the  community  may  undertake  to  give  five 
per  cent  or  ten  per  cent  of  the  capital  invested,  or  to 
pay  annually  so  much  per  each  laborer  employed  in 
the  factory.  Another  plan  which  has  attracted  a 


IIO  The  Making  of  a  Town 

great  deal  of  attention  everywhere  is  the  one  known 
as  the  Williamsport  plan,  which  is,  after  all,  an  ar- 
rangement for  the  guarantee  of  bank  credit.     It  is 
based  upon  what  might  be  called  subscription  credit, 
the  subscribers  agreeing  to  furnish  any  amount  they 
may  be  called  upon  for   (up  to  the  total  of  their 
subscription)  in  the  case  of  failure  of  borrowers  to 
make  returns  of  loans.    The  contract  is  made  for  a 
year  and  attorneys-in-fact  appointed  to  administer 
the  subscription.     Business  concerns  have  been  in- 
duced to  go  to  a  town  and  are  guaranteed  a  certain 
amount  of  credit.    On  making  application  for  a  loan, 
the    attorneys-in-fact,    after    satisfying    themselves 
regarding  the  need  of  the  applicant,   endorse  the 
paper  to  the  amount  of  the  loan  approved  and  indi- 
cate what  bank  is  to  furnish  the  money.    If  the  bor- 
rower meets  his  obligation,  the  subscribers  have  no 
knowledge  of  the  transaction,  but  if  he  fails  the  sub- 
scribers must  pay  to  the  bank  whatever  deficit  exists ; 
but  no  subscriber  is  liable  for  more  than  his  propor- 
tionate share  of  the  total  subscription.     In  the  case 
of  Williamsport,  three  subscriptions  have  been  made, 
the  first  of  $215,000,  the  second  of  $461,000,  and 
the  third  of  $500,000,  and  the  plan  has  been  highly 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business   in 

successful.  It  is  a  recognition,  after  all,  of  principles 
that  have  long  been  applied  in  the  rural  regions  of 
Denmark  and  Germany  in  the  matter  of  establishing 
community  credit.  It  is  based  upon  the  idea  of  sub- 
stituting community  credit  for  individual  credit,  and 
is  an  instance  of  what  can  be  done  where  harmony 
and  the  cooperative  spirit  exist  in  a  community. 

In  the  early  development  of  new  countries  the 
tendency  is  to  lay  the  emphasis  upon  one  line  of 
industry.  There  are  many  examples  of  towns  that 
owe  their  origin  to  some  one  industry,  such  as  that  of 
lumber,  and  come  to  be  known  as  one-line  towns. 
So  long  as  Nature  holds  out  and  furnishes  the  raw 
materials,  the  noise  of  mill  and  hoist  are  heard 
night  and  day,  while  strong  men  of  the  roaming 
type  move  restlessly  up  and  down  the  streets  look- 
ing for  excitement.  The  end  comes,  the  mills  move 
away;  what  then  is  to  continue  the  town?  This 
is  the  test  of  the  work  that  has  been  done,  the 
determination  of  the  value  of  organization,  and 
the  searching  of  the  confidence  and  foresight  of 
the  citizens  in  the  future  of  the  place.  Looked  at 
superficially,  the  situation  just  described  might  ap- 
pear hopeless,  but  many  a  place  has  grown  greater 


112  The  Making  of  a  Town 

than  before,  realizing  that  it  must  create  factories, 
utilize  the  labor  supply  at  hand,  and  develop  the 
agricultural  opportunities  roundabout.  Thus  things 
previously  overlooked  are  found  to  have  an  eco- 
nomic future  that  will  last  as  long  as  the  town, 
but  it  is  essential  that  the  situation  be  recognized 
before  the  one  industry  has  ceased  to  be,  for  ten 
years  is  a  short  time  in  the  history  of  any  community. 
A  town  where  manufacturing  has  taken  place  pos- 
sesses at  least  fair  transportation  facilities,  banks 
accustomed  to  lend  on  products,  and  a  basis  for  a 
labor  supply.  The  local  situation  naturally  deter- 
mines the  successors  of  the  primary  forms  of  manu- 
facture, but  inventiveness,  foresight,  and  courage  will 
bring  success  from  such  a  situation. 

The  distributer  performs  quite  as  important  a 
function  in  the  development  of  business  as  does  the 
manufacturer.  Yet  he  finds  increasing  competition 
everywhere,  from  wholesale  merchants  or  manufac- 
turers who  are  endeavoring  to  sell  direct  to  the  retail 
trade,  and  the  retail  merchant,  and  in  his  conflict  with 
the  mail-order  houses.  Occasionally  the  argument  is 
heard  that  the  merchant  in  the  community  pays  his 
part  of  the  taxes,  supports  the  church  and  school,  and 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business   113 

bears  his  share  of  the  burden  of  keeping  up  the  town, 
and  consequently  is  entitled  to  the  support  of  his 
fellow  citizens.  He  feels  that  he  is  not  being  dealt 
with  justly  when  they  make  purchases  outside  of  the 
home  town.  This,  however,  is  a  parasitic  argument. 
The  community  is  not  interested  in  maintaining  any 
man  who  is  not  able  to  supply  the  goods  and  sell 
them  in  competition  with  other  merchants  either  at 
home  or  abroad.  The  mail-order  house  succeeds 
because  it  has  the  stock,  and  facilities,  and  the  organi- 
zation to  do  the  business.  The  local  merchant  fails 
in  the  competition  because  he  is  hampered  by  lack 
of  business  knowledge,  the  failure  to  buy  on  the  best 
basis,  and  inability  to  see  the  trend  of  business.  He 
is  usually  an  opponent  of  the  parcels  post,  fearing 
that  the  distant  metropolitan  store  will  be  favored 
as  against  his  own.  But  a  customer  in  most  cases 
wants  a  particular  article  as  quickly  as  it  can  be 
obtained,  and  he  wants  also  to  inspect  his  purchases 
before  accepting  them.  This  he  can  do  through  the 
local  store  to  better  advantage  than  elsewhere. 
Moreover,  in  the  matter  of  credit,  the  payment  of 
money,  and  the  returning  of  unsatisfactory  articles, 
he  is  able  to  secure  better  satisfaction  than  he  can 


H4  The  Making  of  a  Town 

in  dealing  with  a  business  house  far  away.     The 
parcels  post  in  reality  opens  to  the  small  merchant 
an  opportunity  to  secure  all  the  advantages  of  a  large 
business  at  a  lower  rate  of  cost.     The  mail-order 
house  today  does  business  by  freight  and  by  post, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  parcels  post  will  not 
materially  enlarge  the  business  that  they  are  now 
carrying  on.     There  is  no  gainsaying  that  the  mail- 
order business  possesses  great  possibilities  in  scope 
and  volume,  and  that  it  has  taken  some  trade  away 
from  the  country  merchant.     It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, if  it  is  really  a  serious  menace  to  him.    While 
saying  this,  it  must  be  recognized  that  he  will  never- 
theless be  compelled  to  inaugurate  better  methods, 
to  make  more  careful  selection  of  stock,  and  to  carry 
on  his  buying  more  directly  with  the  manufacturer, 
saving  so  far  as  possible  the  wholesaler's  profits. 
That  the  country  merchant  can  live  under  such  com- 
petition would  seem  to  be  demonstrated  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  one-line  retail  shop  that  has  made  its 
appearance  everywhere  in  the  largest  cities  while 
still  in  competition  with  the  department  store.     In 
the  final  analysis  the  advantage  to  the  consumer 
would  appear  to  be  in  his  dealings  with  the  retail 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business   115 

store;  but  he  will  buy  where  he  can  buy  cheapest, 
and  if  the  small  merchant  can  meet  this  point  there 
is  no  question  but  that  in  the  long  run  he  will  hold 
the  consumer  in  face  of  the  competition  of  the  mail- 
order business. 

Buying  in  small  quantities  has  always  brought 
with  it  an  added  financial  burden  and  increased  cost 
of  handling.  There  would  seem  to  be  no  reason 
why  the  country  merchants  on  the  same  line  of  rail- 
road might  not  unite  their  forces.  Through  their 
combined  purchasing  power  they  would  secure  all 
the  advantages  of  the  lower  prices,  better  railroad 
rates,  and  added  banking  facilities.  To  illustrate: 
if  a  half  dozen  merchants  in  a  neighborhood  could 
agree  to  buy  their  supplies  through  one  purchasing 
agent,  guaranteeing  jointly  their  credit,  they  would 
be  able  to  get  the  low  prices  due  to  purchasing  in 
large  quantities,  secure  carload  rates,  and  get  from 
the  banks  the  funds  necessary  to  pay  their  bills, 
securing  two  or  three  per  cent  discount  for  cash. 
These  savings  would  amount  to  a  very  considerable 
profit.  Besides  the  method  just  suggested,  there 
would  appear  to  be  no  reason  why  the  different 
merchants  in  the  community  might  not  issue  a  joint 


n6  The  Making  of  a  Town 

catalogue,  in  much  the  same  form  as  those  of  mail- 
order houses,  showing  what  they  have  to  sell.  The 
opportunity  to  select  goods  leisurely  and  to  compre- 
hend fully  the  proposed  prices  and  conditions  are 
especially  enjoyed  by  those  purchasing  by  catalogue. 
If  the  consumer  not  only  could  see  the  article  in 
the  printed  form,  but  in  addition  could  examine  it 
in  the  store  after  he  had  learned  about  it,  a  great 
many  advantages  would  arise  which  ought  to  result 
in  increased  sales.  Clean  stores,  bright  stocks,  and 
care  as  to  the  immediate  wants  of  consumers  cannot 
but  produce  satisfactory  results.  In  too  many  in- 
stances merchants  have  gotten  into  the  habit  of  buy- 
ing goods  along  the  line  of  least  resistance.  They 
have  established  credit  and  they  know  the  house. 
Unless  a  merchant  is  alive  as  to  what  is  going  on, 
he  will  find  that  no  wholesale  house  can  give  him 
the  advantages  of  special  concerns  that  are  engaged 
in  the  importation  or  manufacture  of  articles.  This 
is  illustrated  again  and  again,  and  if  the  merchant 
does  not  watch  the  price  lists  of  all  kinds  of  man- 
ufacturers in  special  fields  in  which  he  is  dealing,  he 
is  bound  to  compare  unfavorably  with  his  competitor. 
The  many  items  that  go  to  make  up  the  cost  of 


The  Fourth  Fundamental  —  Business   117 

doing  business  do  not  rest  alone  upon  the  individual. 
Insurance,  for  example,  depends  upon  the  character 
of  fire  protection  and  the  kind  of  buildings  that  have 
been  erected.  If  it  is  a  wooden  town,  then  insurance 
rates  are  almost  prohibitive,  but  by  combination  the 
merchants  of  the  community  can  secure  better  build- 
ings, better  fire  protection  and  lower  rates  of  insur- 
ance. The  price  of  getting  on  in  business  is,  like  the 
price  of  liberty,  eternal  vigilance,  and  it  is  only  by 
watching  all  of  the  factors  involved  that  the  mer- 
chant can  be  sure  that  he  can  hold  his  place  and 
secure  his  profit. 

All  of  this  goes  to  show  that  the  continuance  of 
any  particular  type  of  business  in  a  community  de- 
pends upon  its  economic  efficiency.  If  it  is  not  able 
to  meet  the  competition  with  which  it  is  confronted, 
the  chances  are  that  it  will  not  be  long-lived.  Old 
machinery  is  forced  out  of  use,  new  types  of  organ- 
ization come  in,  and  the  same  will  undoubtedly  be 
true  with  a  business  organization. 


THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  TOWN 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  TOWN 

IN  the  olden  days  the  stranger  who  entered  a 
European  city,  whether  on  foot,  horseback,  or 
in  a  carriage,  passed  through  an  impressive  gateway, 
often  highly  ornamented  and  in  many  instances 
marked  by  great  architectural  beauty.  The  need  of  a 
wall  about  a  town  has  gone,  and  with  it  has  vanished 
the  formal  gate.  Today  references  to  the  gateway 
of  the  city  are  largely  figurative  forms  of  speech; 
still,  it  may  be  said  that  the  points  where  the  traveler 
first  comes  in  contact  with  the  town  might  be  called 
in  modern  parlance  the  entrance  to  the  community. 
The  wonderful  railway  stations  on  the  European  con- 
tinent, and  even  those  in  America  that  are  the  results 
of  years  of  waiting,  vast  expenditures  of  money,  and 
the  utilization  of  great  engineering  skill,  are  re- 
ferred to  by  the  citizen  as  the  gateway  of  his  city. 
Impressive  entrances  to  a  town  cannot  be  built  in  a 
day ;  yet  the  small  community  can  do  many  things  in 

121 


122  The  Making  of  a  Town 

a  modest  way  to  give  the  stranger  entering  it  an  im- 
pression that  will  be  lasting.  One  of  the  first  of 
these  things  the  town  can  do  is  to  improve  its  street 
lighting.  We  are  immeasurably  behind  European 
cities  both  in  the  quality  of  light  and  in  the  manner 
of  arranging  our  lighting  systems.  Some  towns 
have  begun  to  appreciate  this  point  and  the  so-called 
"White  Way"  has  made  its  appearance  in  many 
places.  The  demand  for  better  lighting  has  come 
largely  from  business  interests.  In  a  number  of 
towns  the  expenses  of  installation  and  maintenance 
have  been  borne  by  them.  The  customary  arrange- 
ment includes  ornamental  posts  with  supported  clus- 
ters of  lights.  These  posts  are  arranged  along  the 
streets  at  intervals  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet. 
Outside  the  central  business  district,  ordinary  gas 
lamps  or  swinging  arc  lamps  furnish  the  light  for 
the  rest  of  the  town.  The  arrangement  is  distinctly 
American  in  that  it  solves  but  a  small  part  of  the 
problem.  A  number  of  years  ago  great  towers  were 
built  and  upon  these  powerful  arc  lights  installed 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  light.  Such  an  ar- 
rangement made  heavy  shadows,  thus  defeating  its 
own  purpose.  The  tower  of  twenty-five  to  fifty 


The  Entrance  123 


feet,  when  well  located,  furnishes  attractive  and 
effective  lighting.  The  gas  lamp  is  less  satisfac- 
tory than  the  frequently  placed  electric  lighted  globe. 
Like  other  matters,  lighting  for  a  town  should  be 
carefully  planned.  Such  plans  should  include  pro- 
vision for  lighting  the  business  section  and  in  addi- 
tion means  for  lighting  residence  districts.  Of  the 
many  features  of  town  development,  the  one  that 
impresses  all  visitors  alike  is  the  beauty  and  the 
adequateness  of  the  street  lighting. 

It  has  come  to  be  a  byword  that  the  worst  part  of 
the  town  is  always  seen  from  the  railway,  and  un- 
fortunately there  is  much  truth  in  this  statement,  for 
in  most  places  the  railway  is  where  the  dirt  and  filth 
of  the  community  are  accumulated.  Despite  this 
fact,  there  are  some  evidences  that  the  railway  may 
be  made  almost  a  thing  of  beauty  by  the  utilization 
of  green  banks  and  shrubbery.  The  contour  of  the 
town  may  be  broken  agreeably  by  planting  rows  of 
trees  and  groups  of  shrubs  along  the  right  of  way. 
Little  by  little  we  are  recognizing  in  America  that 
the  railway  station  furnishes  a  really  great  oppor- 
tunity to  advance  the  point  of  view  of  the  com- 
munity. So  we  are  copying  the  attractive  appear- 


124  The  Making  of  a  Town 

ance  of  the  railway  station  in  England,  both  in  the 
character  of  the  buildings  and  in  the  lawns  and  plant- 
ing about  the  place.  The  very  fact  that  the  railway 
station  is  a  center  of  traffic  necessitates  some  ad- 
equate setting.  In  front  of  it  should  be  an  open 
space,  which  ought  to  be  well  arranged  so  as  to  give 
some  dignity  to  the  main  entrance  of  the  town. 
Moreover,  the  stranger  who  steps  out  of  the  station 
ought  not  to  be  in  danger  from  the  traffic  which  is 
passing  by.  There  should  be  in  fact  a  sufficiently 
wide  plaza  before  the  entrance  of  the  station  to  give 
him  adequate  protection,  whichever  way  he  may 
turn.  It  has  been  suggested  by  some  landscape  archi- 
tects that  a  small  park  near  a  railway  station  is  of 
untold  benefit,  because  it  gives  to  travelers  who  are 
compelled  to  wait  over  a  train  a  chance  to  spend 
their  time  in  the  open  air  and  to  secure  relief  from 
the  noise  of  the  station.  Provision  of  such  a  char- 
acter would  cause  the  traveler  to  hold  in  his  mind 
a  grateful  memory  of  the  town  where  he  was  allowed 
to  wait  amid  the  surroundings  of  nature. 

In  American  towns  the  place  and  position  of  the 
railway  is  practically  determined  before  the  town 
reaches  any  great  importance.  If  the  station  can  be 


The  Entrance  125 


located  at  one  side  of  the  town,  with  a  street  lead- 
ing up  to  the  main  portion,  it  is  likely  to  prove  a 
more  satisfactory  arrangement  than  if  it  stood  in 
the  center  of  the  community  with  all  the  noise  and 
dirt  that  accompanies  any  railway  traffic.  The 
station  itself  should  be  well  designed,  built  of  sub- 
stantial material,  and  in  keeping  with  the  importance 
of  the  community.  Inside  cleanliness  should  be  in- 
sisted upon,  though  this  in  too  many  instances  seems 
to  be  impossible  to  secure ;  and  one  other  thing  rela- 
tive to  the  order  upon  platforms  might  be  empha- 
sized, namely,  giving  instructions  to  town  marshals 
and  the  officers  in  charge  of  the  railway  station  to 
keep  young  people  off  of  the  platforms  and  out  of 
station  buildings  unless  they  have  specific  business 
there.  In  some  places  there  may  be  seen  young  girls 
and  irresponsible  boys  on  the  platforms  watching 
and  ogling  any  stranger  who  happens  to  step  off  the 
train.  In  the  mind  of  the  thinking  person  this  leaves 
a  bad  impression  as  to  the  attitude  on  the  part  of 
such  communities. 

Next  to  the  railway  station  in  creating  first  im- 
pressions upon  the  traveler  is  the  hotel.  Much 
might  be  said  about  the  hotel  of  the  small  town 


126  The  Making  of  a  Town 

relative  to  the  failure  of  its  management  to  realize 
their  opportunity  and  the  general  discomfort  that  is 
characteristic  of  the  average  hostelry.    The  hotel  is 
the  city's  guest  chamber.    In  the  larger  places  it  may 
rest  upon  a  business  basis,   since  the  demands  of 
the  traveling  public  must  be  fully  met  under  the 
competition  that  exists  there.     But  in  the  smaller 
places  the  hotel  falls  into  the  hands  of  almost  any- 
body and  there  is  a  complete  failure  to  recognize 
the   important   functions   which   it  performs.     All 
traveling  men  know  that  a  good  hotel  is  to  be 
found  in  but  few  towns.     Naturally  many  a  com- 
munity is  passed  by  in  order  that  the  traveler  may 
find  a  comfortable  place  in  which  to  spend  his  Sun- 
day.    It  is  not  the  cheapness  but  the  comfort  that 
appeals.    The  importance  of  possessing  a  good  hotel 
has  never  been  given  the  consideration  that  it  should 
have  received,  although  there  appears  to  be  sufficient 
reason  why  the  commercial  club  in  every  community 
should  give  this  matter  its  attention. 

The  problem  of  securing  a  hotel  with  satisfactory 
accommodation,  however,  is  not  a  very  difficult  one. 
It  requires  a  man  of  some  imagination,  of  ability,  and 
ideals,  to  manage  it. 


The  Entrance  127 


There  must  be  plenty  of  air  in  the  rooms,  fresh 
paint,  cleanliness,  and  comfort.  Simplicity  other 
than  ornateness  should  obtain,  and  if  round  about 
the  building  there  is  a  patch  of  lawn  showing  evi- 
dence of  care,  the  traveler  at  once  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  here  is  a  place  where  rest  and  quiet  can 
be  had.  Fresh  air  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  more  sat- 
isfactory thing  to  have  in  the  lobby  of  the  hotel 
than  stale  tobacco ;  nor  should  the  hotel-keeper  allow 
loafers  to  continually  utilize  the  room  in  the  lobby  of 
his  building. 

The  true  test  of  a  hotel  management  is  to  be 
found  in  the  dining-room.  If  the  average  hotel 
manager  would  cease  to  imitate  the  city  hotel,  dis- 
pense with  the  numerous  small  dishes  that  are 
served,  and  fall  back  upon  simple  meals,  with  good 
bread  and  butter,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  reputa- 
tion could  be  established  both  for  him  and  the  town. 
A  service  of  good  fruit,  chicken  pie  or  hot  roast, 
with  large  cups  of  good,  hot  coffee,  furnish  a  basis 
for  meals  that  will  remain  a  long  time  in  the  memory 
of  the  patrons.  Add  to  this  the  absence  of  flies  and 
the  presence  of  clean  linen,  clean  dishes,  and  an  at- 
titude of  courtesy  on  the  part  of  the  hotel  people, 


ia8  The  Making  of  a  Town 

and  nothing  can  prevent  the  man  who  runs  such  a 
hotel  from  coming  into  his  reward.  It  has  been 
suggested,  too,  that  many  of  our  traveling  public 
have  reached  a  somewhat  dyspeptic  condition.  In- 
structions to  waitresses  to  recognize  this  fact  and 
to  give  the  crank  something  to  eat  that  may  not  be 
on  the  bill  of  fare  would  help  materially  in  creating 
popularity.  The  hotel  man  can  be  helpful  to  the 
people  of  the  community  by  giving  dinners  for 
special  occasions  and  by  relieving  the  ladies  in  the 
matter  of  their  luncheons  and  entertainments.  By 
so  doing  he  can  occupy  a  large  place  in  the  com- 
munity and  may  regard  himself  as  a  man  who  is 
giving  both  help  and  pleasure  to  humanity. 

"  The  play's  the  thing"  said  one  of  Shakespeare's 
characters  several  hundred  years  ago,  and  in  this 
statement  we  have  in  the  theater  another  entrance 
to  the  community.  Practically  every  community  has 
some  sort  of  a  hall  where  shows  are  put  on  the 
boards;  oftentimes  these  are  exceedingly  shabby  and 
only  the  cheapest  kind  of  plays  appear.  In  most 
instances  individuals  control  this  great  public  ed- 
ucator, and  are  allowed  to  do  so  without  any  re- 


The  Entrance  129 


monstrance  on  the  part  of  the  municipality.  The 
little  city  of  Red  Wing,  Minnesota,  a  number  of 
years  ago  was  left  a  memorial  theater  by  one  of  its 
citizens.  The  control  of  it  was  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  board  of  trustees  and  they  were  given  power  to 
carry  on  the  business  of  the  theater,  to  engage  plays 
and  concerts  and  entertainments.  From  time  to 
time  a  vote  of  the  community  was  taken  as  to  what 
they  should  have,  and  the  result  has  been  a  marked 
uplift  in  the  character  of  entertainment  offered  in 
that  community.  A  theater  ought  to  be  an  attractive 
building,  not  overly  ornate,  but  clean,  and,  if  possible 
by  any  means  whatsoever,  advertisements  should  be 
left  off  of  the  drop  curtain.  In  time  we  shall  recog- 
nize that  the  municipality  ought  to  own  the  theater, 
That  it  even  should  have,  where  it  can  afford  it,  a 
municipal  orchestra,  that  the  entertainment  of  the 
community  should  be  under  just  as  direct  super- 
vision as  education.  Such  a  program  is  undoubtedly 
a  long  way  off,  but  in  the  meantime  every  community 
can  take  into  consideration  the  problem  of  the  the- 
ater and  attempt  to  eliminate  some  of  the  tawdryness 
and  meanness  of  existing  theatrical  presentations. 


130  The  Making  of  a  Town 

The  city  of  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  has  ini- 
tiated what  is  a  new  experiment  in  American  life,  a 
theater  owned  by  the  municipality  and  operated  under 
its  control. 

There  is  nothing  new  in  a  municipal  theater.  Such 
theaters  date  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  probably  grew  out  of  the  still  earlier  custom 
of  pagan  Rome  of  furnishing  entertainment  for  the 
people.  Such  theaters  are  familiar  to  the  people  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe.  A  well-informed  writer  in 
the  Boston  Transcript  says  that  "the  European  takes 
his  municipal  theater  as  a  matter  of  course,  just  as  he 
takes  his  municipal  schools,  his  municipal  art  mu- 
seum, his  municipal  playground."  There  is  really 
no  reason  why  the  people  should  not  provide  for 
themselves  a  cheap  and  pure  entertainment  as  well  as 
a  cheap  and  good  education;  no  reason  why  they 
should  not  own  and  operate  for  their  own  benefit  a 
theater  as  well  as  a  museum.  This,  however,  never 
has  been  done  in  America,  nor,  so  far  as  we  know, 
in  England.  One  contrast  between  the  results  of  the 
English  and  the  German  system  is  noted  by  this 
writer  in  the  Transcript:  "In  Germany  there  are 
practically  no  traveling  companies.  Each  city,  even 
the  smallest,  has  its  independent  local  playhouses, 
whose  actors  and  stage  directors  mount  new  pieces 
as  soon  as  some  experimenter  has  proven  them  suc- 
cessful or  interesting  elsewhere,  and  use  them  as  part 
of  a  large  and  shifting  repertory.  In  England  it  is 
the  opposite.  There  you  find  only  one  center  for 


The  Entrance  131 


theatrical  production  —  London  —  and  a  play  once 
successful  runs  for  many  months.  In  America  we 
have  many  cities  all  bound  together  by  a  great  tour- 
ing system  over  which  a  play  travels  from  town  to 
town.  The  resident  stock  company  of  merit  is  almost 
unknown,  especially  in  the  smaller  cities.  Repertory 
and  change  of  bill  is  rarer  than  in  England." 

Another  result  of  this  contract  is  that  the  smaller 
towns  and  cities  in  America  rarely  get  good  plays, 
and  still  more  rarely  good  companies.  Apprentices 
learn  their  trade  on  the  road.  One-night  perform- 
ances are  the  rule.  Plays  which  are  to  legitimate 
drama  what  pictures  chalked  on  the  sidewalk  are  to 
legitimate  art,  are  customary.  The  managers  depend 
on  striking,  sensational,  and  bizarre  effects.  The 
actors  and  actresses,  having  no  reputation  to  win  and 
none  to  maintain,  have  very  little  spur  to  their  artistic 
ambition. 

It  may  be  noted  incidentally,  that  the  municipal 
theater  is  not  without  its  economic  value  to  the  city. 
Hitherto  the  road  shows  which  played  in  Northamp- 
ton took  out  of  the  city  a  large  percentage  of  the 
receipts.  With  this  new  idea  in  operation,  all  the 
money  spent  for  the  theater  by  the  citizens  remains 
in  the  community.  The  members  of  the  company 
find  their  homes  in  the  city,  and  all  materials  for 
scenery  and  work  upon  the  stage  are  supplied  by  the 
residents  of  the  city.  Therefore  large  amounts  of 
money  which  hitherto  were  taken  out  of  Northamp- 
ton by  road  shows,  are  now  returning  through  the 


132  The  Making  of  a  Town 

channels  of  mercantile  business  into  the  pockets  from 
which  they  came.  This  fact  is  worth  being  borne  in 
mind  by  the  citizens  of  other  municipalities  in  con- 
sidering the  practicability  of  establishing  a  municipal 
theater  for  their  own  community.* 

Without  thinking  anything  about  it,  most  com- 
munities have  lost  a  real  opportunity  to  impress  upon 
themselves  as  well  as  upon  visitors  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  center  to  the  town.  Under  our  triple  form  of 
government  found  in  nation,  country,  and  city,  the 
usual  custom  has  been  to  locate  public  buildings  in 
different  places.  The  varying  degree  of  influence 
that  has  been  brought  to  bear  in  the  three  instances 
seems  to  make  it  impossible  to  concentrate  the  own- 
ership of  government  property,  and  as  a  consequence 
there  is  no  centralization  of  public  buildings  in  most 
towns.  The  bringing  together  of  the  more  impor- 
tant buildings  round  about  a  square  has  been  desig- 
nated as  the  creation  of  the  civic  center.  When  such 
a  thing  is  planned  in  advance  by  one  man  and  where 
sufficient  scope  has  been  given  to  him  the  result  is 
imposing  and  effective.  Without  question  the  effect 
of  our  public  buildings  is  lost  in  most  communities. 

*  Outlook,  Dec.  21,  1912. 


The  Entrance  133 


Even  the  placing  of  them  along  the  same  street  or 
on  the  river  bank  results  in  a  picturesque  setting 
that  is  impressive,  for  such  grouping  of  buildings 
helps  the  appearance  of  all.  The  main  center  in  such 
a  plan  should  be  occupied  by  the  government  build- 
ings, and  another  center,  such  as  an  educational  one, 
would  occupy  another  place  in  proximity  to  the  first. 
In  too  many  instances  it  is  almost  too  late  to  develop 
anything  in  the  way  of  a  civic  center  on  account  of 
the  high  price  of  property  and  the  fact  that  build- 
ings already  have  been  placed.  But  where  it  is  im- 
possible because  of  relocations,  or  in  the  case  of  the 
building  of  a  new  community,  the  central  point  should 
be  selected  where  people  are  likely  to  congregate, 
where,  in  fact,  there  is  a  centering  of  the  main  traffic 
lines  of  the  town,  and  at  such  point  the  more  im- 
portant buildings  of  the  community  can  be  erected. 
A  consideration  of  the  points  raised  in  this  chapter 
as  to  the  beautifying  of  the  railway  station,  the 
proper  conduct  of  the  hotel,  the  direction  and  de- 
velopment of  the  theater,  in  order  to  make  it  educa- 
tional in  character,  together  with  the  grouping  of 
public  buildings  about  a  square,  would  prove  of 
great  benefit  to  the  community,  because  the  town 


134  The  Making  of  a  Town 

would  be  set  out  in  marked  contrast  to  its  neigh- 
bors. Such  results  require  thinking  in  advance,  but 
there  is  hope,  for  we  are  beginning  to  realize  that 
building  towns  is  not  a  mere  matter  of  letting  them 
"just  grow"  like  Topsy,  but  a  matter  of  planning 
long  in  advance  of  performance. 


GOVERNMENT    AND    ADMINISTRATION 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

WHILE  a  great  municipal  awakening  has  been 
going  on  in  America,  with  the  object  of 
quickening  an  appreciation  of  municipal  obligation, 
of  making  known  existing  conditions,  of  familiariz- 
ing citizens  with  municipal  government,  of  securing 
efficiency  and  encouraging  the  social  forces  for  bet- 
terment, there  has  been  at  the  same  time  a  tendency 
everywhere  to  minimize  city  functions.  The  law 
has  determined  the  powers  which  a  municipality  may 
exercise  and  laid  these  down  in  express  words,  so 
that  the  object  of  municipal  government  must  be 
clearly  declared  for  any  acts  beyond  the  scope  of 
the  powers  conferred,  and  any  doubt  as  to  them 
must  be  determined  by  the  courts.  Exactly  the  op- 
posite attitude  exists  in  Europe,  where  the  freedom 
of  the  city  to  carry  on  such  functions  as  it  thinks 
necessary  is  undenied.  Primarily  a  town  is  an  agency 
for  carrying  on  local  government.  As  such  it  is  the 

137 


138  The  Making  of  a  Town 

agent  of  the  people.  Secondarily,  it  acts  as  the  agent 
of  the  state.  These  two  functions  include  all  that 
a  city  may  do  or  may  be  called  upon  to  do. 

In  its  organization  a  city  exists  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  promoting  the  general  welfare,  and  in  order 
to  accomplish  such  results  it  must  necessarily  en- 
gage in  various  enterprises  to  care  efficiently  for  the 
welfare  of  the  population.  Because  it  is  responsive 
to  the  public  will,  it  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind 
that  a  city  cannot  respond  to  the  business  motive  of 
making  profits,  and  the  science  of  governing  a  city 
becomes  really  a  method  of  doing.  As  an  agent 
engaged  in  satisfying  local  needs,  the  municipality, 
large  or  small,  must  maintain  some  public  utilities, 
such  as  means  of  communication,  transportation,  the 
providing  of  light  and  water,  the  maintenance  of 
markets,  the  disposal  of  wastes,  the  protection  of 
life,  health  and  property,  the  direction  of  charities 
and  corrections,  the  conduct  of  education,  the  pro- 
viding of  recreation  in  playgrounds  and  parks,  and 
even  the  construction  and  management  of  municipal 
housing  for  a  part  of  the  population;  all  of  these 
fall  within  the  scope  of  what  a  municipal  body  may 
be  expected  to  do.  In  addition  to  these  direct  serv- 


Government  and  Administration        139 

ices,  the  municipality  must  raise  money  for  the 
maintenance  of  government.  This  may  be  from  the 
direction  of  property  which  it  owns,  from  the  pro- 
ceeds of  loans,  or  as  a  consequence  of  gifts  and 
legacies.  Police  regulations,  too,  unfortunately,  may 
furnish  through  the  medium  of  fees,  licenses  and 
franchises  a  considerable  income,  while  the  public 
works  may  actually  earn  a  surplus  over  and  above 
the  cost  of  operation.  The  main  source  of  the  city's 
income,  however,  is  from  general  and  special  taxa- 
tion due  to  local  improvements.  The  functions 
enumerated  thus  far  may  be  carried  to  almost  any 
end,  especially  in  the  protection  of  health  and  the 
guarding  of  life  and  property.  So  the  city  must 
share  with  the  state  the  problem  of  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  the  prosecution  of  criminals,  the  care 
of  defectives,  and  sometimes  it  even  may  subsidize 
industry  to  furnish  opportunities  for  self  help. 

As  in  federal  and  state  government  the  legisla- 
tures have  followed  the  trend  of  organization  that 
has  been  laid  down  in  constitution  and  law  and  ap- 
plied this  to  the  government  of  towns  and  cities. 
While  municipal  government  is  the  most  difficult  of 
all  government,  because  the  problems  with  which  it 


140  The  Making  of  a  Town 

has  to  deal  are  nearest  the  people,  yet  the  type  of 
legislative  organization,  of  state  executive,  and  even 
the  method  of  taxation,  have  been  carried  over  into 
municipal  organization.  It  was  natural  that  the 
older  forms  of  charters  should  provide  for  two 
houses  in  the  legislative  division  of  government  and 
divide  the  authority  of  the  executive  between  the 
council,  a  group  of  boards,  and  the  chief  officer  of 
the  municipality.  It  was  natural,  too,  that  adminis- 
trative supervision  under  such  conditions  should  be 
delegated  to  committees  without  any  special  coop- 
erative relation  between  them,  and  the  ward  system, 
a  copy  of  representation  by  states,  be  engrafted  upon 
the  government  of  towns,  creating  thereby  a  demand 
for  local  advantages  and  making  it  difficult  to  place 
responsibility  upon  the  members  of  the  council. 

Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  government  that 
exists  in  a  town,  there  are  certain  phases  which 
should  be  the  same  for  all  types  of  charters.  With- 
out question  a  town  should  have  powers  sufficient  to 
meet  all  the  local  needs  within  its  territory;  it  should 
insist  upon  a  merit  system  of  employees;  it  should 
have  a  simple  organization  with  a  few  elective  of- 
fices, so  that  the  question  of  responsibility  for  the 


Government  and  Administration        141 

actions  of  the  government  might  easily  be  deter- 
mined. Moreover,  the  policy  of  the  city  should  be 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  people,  and  the  admin- 
istrative service  should  be  competent  and  continuous. 
A  great  deal  of  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  form  of 
government  rather  than  upon  its  spirit.  The  spirit 
is  a  thing  which  constantly  changes;  the  form  con- 
tinues. Hence  it  is  essential  in  the  working  out  of 
the  charter  that  the  form  should  encourage  and  de- 
velop the  spirit  of  good  government.  In  this  direc- 
tion is  to  be  seen  the  tendency  to  enlarge  the  func- 
tions of  the  voter  in  the  business  of  government 
through  the  agencies  of  the  initiative,  referendum 
and  recall,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  num- 
ber of  representatives  so  as  to  bring  the  people  into 
closer  contact  with  the  governing  groups.  In  most 
charters  very  little  provision  is  made  for  unifying 
the  relations  between  departments.  Even  the  meet- 
ing of  heads  together  to  discuss  municipal  affairs  is 
looked  upon  as  a  tendency  to  create  a  machine  that 
may  be  used  to  perpetuate  the  tenure  of  office. 

Putting  it  briefly,  there  are  four  kinds  of  city 
charters, —  the  mayor  type,  the  council  type,  the 
commission  form,  and  the  corporation  form.  In  the 


142  The  Making  of  a  Town 

mayor  type  the  effort  is  made  to  throw  upon  the 
mayor  the  larger  part  of  the  responsibility,  redu- 
cing the  council  to  a  legislative  group  and  insisting 
that  the  mayor  shall  carry  the  burden  of  adminis- 
tration. The  council  type  provides  that  the  council 
shall  have  unusual  authority  in  the  selection  of  of- 
ficers and  in  the  control  over  them,  leaving  to  the 
mayor  the  conduct  of  general  executive  matters  and 
the  administration  of  the  department  of  police.  In 
both  instances  various  provisions  may  exist  for  the 
election  of  members  of  the  council.  They  may  be 
chosen  at  large,  from  wards,  or  from  districts;  and 
in  the  case  of  the  mayor  type  of  council,  a  double 
council,  consisting  of  a  considerable  number  of  mem- 
bers, may  be  a  part  of  the  machine.  The  term  of  the 
mayor  varies  from  one  to  five  years,  with  a  two  year 
term  as  the  customary  one.  In  the  working  of  these 
forms  much  criticism  has  been  made  upon  the  point 
that  it  is  difficult  to  fix  responsibility  for  the  action 
of  the  government,  and  so  great  has  this  criticism 
become  that  a  marked  tendency  has  set  in  toward  the 
so-called  commission  plan  of  government. 

As  early  as  1870  a  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment was  tried  in  several  cities  of  the  South  and 


Government  and  Administration        143 

proposed  in  New  Orleans.  The  experience  of  Gal- 
veston  brought  about  a  revival  of  the  commission 
plan,  and  the  success  of  a  government  conducted 
with  a  purpose  was  so  great  as  to  give  to  the  experi- 
ment an  unusual  amount  of  publicity.  Adding  to 
the  commission  idea  the  provisions  for  the  initia- 
tive, referendum  and  recall,  the  people  of  Des 
Moines  inaugurated  a  new  type  of  commission  with 
provisions  for  non-partisan  primaries.  The  com- 
mission plan  of  government  ordinarily  provides  for 
five  commissioners.  One,  acting  as  mayor,  is  the 
head  of  the  department  of  public  welfare;  another 
is  elected  as  head  of  the  department  of  ways  and 
means,  under  which  are  found  the  work  of  account- 
ing and  finance;  a  third  has  charge  of  the  public 
utilities;  a  fourth  looks  after  the  public  property  in 
the  form  of  parks,  buildings,  and  fire  protection; 
and  the  fifth  may  have  charge  of  the  public  ways, 
such  as  walks,  streets,  and  alleys.  In  each  of  these 
departments  the  heads  appoint  their  subordinates, 
and  the  commission  acts  both  as  a  council  and  as 
executive  officers. 

The  advantage  gained  through  this  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  in  the  ability  of  the  people  to  place  re- 


144  The  Making  of  a  Town 

sponsibility,  and  in  case  of  the  failure  of  an  officer 
to  carry  on  his  department  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law,  to  recall  him  and  elect  another 
in  his  place.  It  may  be  said  that  though  there  are  a 
number  of  instances  where  this  plan  has  worked  suc- 
cessfully, yet  the  interest  in  it,  due  to  unusual  con- 
ditions in  most  of  the  towns  that  have  adopted  it, 
has  given  a  spirit  to  the  conduct  of  government  that 
would  for  a  time  have  carried  any  form  to  success. 
The  real  test  will  take  place  a  few  years  hence,  when 
the  "interests"  that  are  involved  will  possibly  have 
learned  how  to  control  or  how  to  secure  their  ends 
through  the  medium  of  a  new  form  of  government. 
One  difficulty  exists,  however,  in  the  commission 
type  of  government,  which  is  true  of  all  forms  of 
government  in  the  United  States.  This  difficulty 
has  its  rise  in  the  egotism  of  the  democracy,  an  ego- 
tism that  takes  it  for  granted  that  a  man  from  a 
store  or  from  any  other  business  will  make  a  good 
governing  officer.  We  have  yet  to  learn  that  munic- 
ipal government  must  be  conducted  by  experts.  This 
secret  England  has  learned  and  Germany  has  long 
possessed,  with  the  result  that  the  success  of  the 
town  governments  in  those  countries  is  largely  due 


Government  and  Administration        145 

to  the  utilization  of  the  abilities  of  men  long  trained 
in  governing  cities.  It  is  with  something  of  this 
view  in  mind  that  a  number  of  the  smaller  communi- 
ties have  appointed  a  city  manager.  Their  idea  is 
that  while  the  commission  plan  places  authority  in 
the  hands  of  a  small  group  of  men  and  thus  cen- 
tralizes it,  yet  it  is  practically  impossible  to  hold  the 
group  responsible  for  its  acts  when  it  is  not  col- 
lectively responsible.  So  these  towns  have  deter- 
mined to  give  over  the  legislative  and  executive  func- 
tions into  the  hands  of  a  smaller  number  of  men, 
and  looking  upon  them  practically  as  directors  of  the 
corporation,  authorize  them  to  select  some  one  who 
is  qualified  to  run  the  city's  business.  The  attitude 
in  the  adoption  of  a  plan  of  this  kind,  as  seen  in  the 
specific  instances  of  Lockport,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Staunton,  Virginia,  is  that  the  business  of  a  town 
should  be  conducted  like  that  of  a  corporation,  the 
council  acting  as  a  board  of  directors  to  take  the 
place  of  the  council  committees.  The  general  man- 
ager is  employed  to  do  the  work  of  the  departments 
and  of  the  committees.  All  purchases  are  made  by 
the  manager  after  estimates  of  the  needs  of  the  town 
have  been  presented.  He  employs  all  the  servants 


146  The  Making  of  a  Town 

of  the  town,  and  he  is  held  responsible  for  the  work 
that  he  does  by  the  council  group.  This  plan  is  now 
being  followed  in  some  of  the  newer  towns  of  Can- 
ada, and  it  is  said  to  simplify  the  conduct  of 
municipal  government  very  materially  and  to 
increase  its  efficiency. 

It  has  become  more  and  more  apparent  to  the 
people  dwelling  in  municipalities,  be  they  large  or 
small,  that  the  street  railway,  gas,  electric  light,  and 
water  services  can  be  performed  so  as  to  further 
the  ends  of  social  welfare.  Thus  the  lowering  of 
the  price  of  gas  in  the  city  of  Glasgow  eliminated  the 
ineffective  cooking  stoves  and  gave  to  many  people 
in  humble  circumstances  an  opportunity  to  provide 
warm  meals,  which  had  not  been  possible  before. 
The  extension  of  light  and  water  service  beyond  the 
ordinary  limits  encourages  the  development  of  living 
away  from  the  crowded  centers,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence has  much  effect  upon  the  growth  of  popula- 
tion. Moreover,  there  is  a  feeling  that  by  the  utili- 
zation of  the  municipality  as  a  means  of  conducting 
these  services  corporate  influences  can  be  eliminated 
from  political  life  and  so  better  government  be 


Government  and  Administration        147 

brought  about.  Thus,  it  is  declared  that  municipal 
ownership  means  a  more  efficient  and  extended  serv- 
ice, cheaper  rates  for  consumers,  the  utilization  of 
the  profits  for  municipal  enterprises,  the  improve- 
ment of  the  conditions  of  labor  and  industry,  the 
working  of  the  public  service  for  the  entire  com- 
munity, and  the  control  of  the  municipal  monopoly, 
not  by  persons  uninterested  in  the  town's  develop- 
ment, but  by  the  citizens  themselves.  It  is  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Public  Ownership  Commission  of  the 
National  Civic  Federation  that  (i)  "public  utili- 
ties can  best  be  conducted  under  a  system  of  legalized 
and  regulated  monopolies.  (2)  Again,  public  util- 
ities, in  which  the  central  motive  is  the  charge,  should 
be  operated  by  the  public.  (3)  The  success  of  mu- 
nicipal operation  of  public  utilities  must  depend  upon 
the  existence  in  the  city  of  a  high  capacity  for  munic- 
ipal government.  (4)  Franchise  grants  to  private 
persons  should  be  terminable  after  a  fixed  period  and 
subject  to  purchase  at  a  fair  value.  (5)  Municipal- 
ities, too,  should  have  the  power  to  enter  the  field 
of  municipal  ownership  upon  popular  vote  under 
reasonable  regulation.  (6)  Private  companies 


148  The  Making  of  a  Town 

operating  public  utilities  should  be  subject  to  public 
regulation  and  examination  under  a  system  of  uni- 
form records  and  accounts  and  of  full  publicity." 

In  the  statements  given  above  we  have  a  summary 
of  the  possible  attitudes  of  a  town  toward  public 
utilities.  Water  and  sewerage  without  doubt  should 
be  provided  for  by  the  public,  and  whatever  fran- 
chises are  granted  by  the  town  should  be  terminable 
and  subject  to  purchase  at  a  fair  value.  In  all  in- 
stances such  companies  should  be  subject  to  public 
regulation  and  examination,  with  full  publicity  of 
accounts,  opportunity  being  provided  for  the  munic- 
ipality to  enter  the  field  upon  popular  vote  under 
reasonable  conditions.  This  would  seem  to  sum- 
marize the  main  features  of  municipal  ownership. 
Sometimes  a  town  is  confronted  with  the  difficulty 
of  securing  the  necessary  capital  to  carry  on  a  public 
utility,  and  the  agreement  which  it  makes  with  the 
private  company  may  be  more  liberal  than  it  other- 
wise would  be  on  account  of  the  conditions.  But  in 
these  cases  the  general  view  of  the  situation  is  such 
that  provisions  for  ownership  in  the  future,  publicity 
of  accounts,  and  regulation  of  service  always  can  be 
made  a  part  of  the  contract 


Government  and  Administration        149 

We  are  beginning  to  realize  the  important  fact 
that  an  honest  people  cannot  do  right  if  they  are  mis- 
informed. In  all  instances  where  changes  in  the 
form  of  town  government  are  urged  the  emphasis  is 
placed  upon  greater  publicity,  more  economy  and 
efficiency  of  administration.  In  bringing  about  so 
desirable  an  end  the  leading  factor  is  the  mainte- 
nance and  adherence  to  a  budget  system  of  finance. 
A  budget  includes  a  complete  statement  of  expendi- 
tures as  well  as  the  income  and  means  of  raising 
revenue.  It  discloses  why  expenditures  may  be 
greater  than  income.  Without  it  a  council  cannot 
have  adequate  information  for  good  government 
and  the  citizen  cannot  know  what  is  being  done.  It 
is  rather  remarkable  that  in  many  of  the  towns  in 
America  merely  a  cash  system  of  bookkeeping  has 
been  in  vogue;  that  is,  cash  accounts  —  cash  received 
and  cash  paid  out  —  were  all  the  means  of  determin- 
ing the  transactions  of  the  town.  It  is  essential 
and  fundamental  that  a  city  government  and  the 
people  of  the  town  should  understand  clearly  what 
constitutes  a  complete  system  of  municipal  accounts. 
Such  a  system  must  cover  all  financial  transactions 
and  data,  and  these  must  be  collected,  classified,  and 


150  The  Making  of  a  Town 

coordinated  around  the  problems  of  administration. 
Thus  we  have  special  and  departmental  ledgers  and 
general  ledgers,  which  will  explain  in  detail  receipts 
and  expenditures,  and  give  a  clear  account  of  what 
the  income  of  the  city  is  and  what  has  actually  been 
expended.  A  budget  system  provides  for  the  pre- 
sentation of  all  the  expenses  for  the  coming  year, 
and  in  addition  to  that  the  classification  of  these 
expenses  according  to  the  functions  which  the  de- 
partment expending  the  money  is  supposed  to  per- 
form. A  budget  is  made  by  means  of  a  committee 
composed  of  departmental  heads,  which,  working 
along  the  lines  of  a  suggested  sheet  of  expenditures, 
is  able  to  show  what  the  money  is  to  be  used  for. 
The  town  council,  which  passes  upon  it  later,  is  able 
to  criticise  and  modify  it,  and  in  the  final  analysis, 
having  adopted  the  items  of  expenditure,  to  provide 
plans  for  raising  the  money. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  of  the  United  States 
has  adopted  for  its  annual  reports  on  the  expendi- 
tures of  municipalities  a  schedule  of  classifications 
that  is  printed  here  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  to 
the  reader  some  divisions  into  which  the  expendi- 
tures of  a  city  may  be  placed.  This  helps  to  demon- 


Government  and  Administration        151 

strate  that  the  whole  business  of  government  can  be 
greatly  facilitated  and  intelligent  criticism  of  ex- 
penditures made  that  will  ultimately  result  in  the 
preventing  of  any  extravagance. 

OUTLINE  FOR  A  TOWN  BUDGET 

I 

GENERAL  GOVERNMENT 

1.  Council  and  legislative  offices 

2.  Finance  offices  and  accounts 

3.  Law  offices 

4.  Executive  offices 

5.  Elections 

6.  Municipal    buildings 

7.  Courts  and  court  officers 

II 
PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 

1.  Police  department 

2.  Militia  and  armories 

3.  Fire  department 

4.  Miscellaneous  inspection 

5.  Pounds 

III 

HEALTH  CONSERVATION  AND  SANITATION 

1.  Health  department 

2.  Quarantine  and  contagious  disease  hospital 

3.  Morgue 

4.  Sewage  and  sewage  disposal 

5.  Street  cleaning 


152  The  Making  of  a  Town 

IV 
HIGHWAYS 

1.  General  supervision 

2.  General  street  expenditures 

3.  Street  pavements 

4.  Grading  and  curbing 

5.  Bridges  and  railroad  crossings 

6.  Street  sprinkling 

7.  Street  lighting 

8.  Miscellaneous 

V 
CHARITIES  AND  CORRECTIONS 

1.  Relief  of  the  poor 

2.  Miscellaneous  charities 

3.  Hospital 

4.  Prison  and  reformatory;  jail 

VI 

EDUCATION 

1.  Schools 

2.  Library 

3.  Art  gallery  and  museum 

4.  Lectures  and  institutes 

VII 

RECREATION 

1.  Parks  and  parkways 

2.  Public  baths 

3.  Children's  playgrounds 

4.  Celebrations  and  entertainments 

5.  Municipal  theater 

VIII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

1.  Miscellaneous  offices 

2.  Miscellaneous  objects 


Government  and  Administration        153 


IX 

PUBLIC  SERVICE  ENTERPRISES 

1.  Waterworks 

2.  Electric  light  plant 

3.  Markets 

4.  Cemeteries 

5.  Institutional  industries 

6.  Public  halls 


INTEREST  AND  PUBLIC  DEBT 

1.  Interest  on  bonds 

2.  Interest  on  other  obligations 

3.  Redemption  of  bonds 

4.  Sinking  fund 

For  the  creation  of  the  budget  the  board  of  esti- 
mates might  well  consist  of  the  mayor,  the  heads  of 
departments,  and  a  small  committee  from  the  council. 
The  council,  having  power  to  strike  out  items  and  re- 
duce amounts,  can  work  out  a  basis  of  expenditure 
that  can  be  accepted  and  adhered  to  by  the  depart- 
ments. 

The  main  basis  of  providing  funds  for  municipal 
expenditure  is  found  in  the  levying  of  a  general  tax 
upon  the  property  of  citizens  residing  within  the  con- 
fines of  the  community.  Our  general  tax  in  America 
is  a  heritage  that  has  come  down  to  us  through  sev- 
eral centuries.  Originally  fairly  effective  in  the  days 


154  The  Making  of  a  Town 

when  property  was  limited  to  things  that  could  be 
seen,  it  has  now  become  a  difficult  matter,  not  only 
of  assessing,  but  of  actually  collecting  the  funds  that 
are  levied  upon  the  basis  of  both  a  personal  and  a 
property  tax.  In  some  of  the  Canadian  towns  the 
personal  property  tax  has  been  abandoned  and  the 
whole  burden  of  the  support  of  the  government 
placed  upon  the  landed  values  of  the  community. 
Thus  practically  a  single  tax  has  come  into  existence, 
and  in  communities  that  are  progressive,  where  pop- 
ulation is  growing  and  industry  developing,  this 
method  of  raising  revenue  has  been  highly  success- 
ful. But  in  the  United  States,  where  the  old  methods 
are  still  adhered  to,  a  good  deal  can  be  done  by 
adopting  businesslike  and  scientific  methods  of  mak- 
ing the  assessment.  Thus  the  assessor  of  the  com- 
munity ought  to  work  out  maps  that  would  show 
the  location  of  every  building,  the  character  of  the 
structure,  and  various  other  items  that  could  be 
ascertained  at  a  glance.  One  way  of  doing  this 
would  be  to  secure  the  facts  regarding  insurance 
placed  upon  buildings.  Another  would  be  to  deter- 
mine, in  accordance  with  the  plan  now  in  vogue  in 


Government  and  Administration        155 

New  York  City,  the  cubic  contents  of  a  building;  and 
then,  by  applying  a  given  rate  to  it,  determine  by  the 
age  of  the  building,  the  character  of  the  structure, 
and  its  general  condition,  its  value  for  taxing  pur- 
poses. In  the  valuing  of  land,  what  is  known  as  the 
Somers  rule  has  worked  well  in  New  York  City. 
Taking  the  middle  lot  in  a  block  and  getting  its  value 
as  nearly  as  possible,  the  value  of  the  other  lots  can 
be  determined  by  a  mathematical  rule  applicable  to 
every  lot  in  the  block.  Thus,  the  corner  being  more 
valuable  than  any  of  the  others,  is  assessed  at  a 
higher  value  and  a  sort  of  mathematical  accuracy 
developed  in  the  determination  of  the  assessment. 
In  smaller  towns,  where  the  uniformity  of  the  large 
city  does  not  exist,  there  would  be  some  difficulty  in 
working  out  this  rule.  Nevertheless,  it  can  be  said, 
as  a  guide  to  assessing  officers,  that  units  of  value 
can  be  utilized  in  determining  not  only  the  assess- 
ments against  land,  but  against  buildings.  In  this 
way  the  haphazard  guessing  that  is  the  rule  in  most 
places  will  be  avoided,  with  a  consequent  greater 
relative  justice  than  is  possible  where  more  general 
personal  estimates  are  made.  Fortunate  is  the  city 


156  The  Making  of  a  Town 

that  has  a  conscientious,  hard-working  and  studious 
assessor;  and  again,  fortunate  is  the  town  that  car- 
ries its  burden  of  taxation  without  complaint,  and 
has  little  difficulty  in  its  collection. 


ORGANIZATIONS  AND  WHAT  THEY  CAN 
DO  FOR  THE  TOWN 


CHAPTER  IX 

ORGANIZATIONS  AND  WHAT  THEY  CAN  Do  FOR 
THE  TOWN 

THE  difference  between  a  live  town  and  a  dead 
one  is  to  be  traced  to  the  kind  of  organization 
existing  in  it.  Under  the  prevailing  conception  of 
municipal  government  many  things  are  left  for  the 
private  individual  to  do,  if  they  are  to  be  done  at  all. 
Naturally,  in  America  organizations  galore  have 
sprung  into  existence.  These  extend  from  the  work 
of  the  commercial  club  to  the  small  boys1  league 
created  for  the  purpose  of  picking  up  refuse  from 
the  streets.  It  is  therefore  the  object  of  this  chapter 
to  deal  with  some  of  the  questions  and  problems  that 
come  before  municipal  organizations  as  well  as  to 
consider  something  of  the  form  these  activities  may 
take.  The  Commercial  Club,  the  Women's  Civic 
League,  the  Associated  Charities,  the  Boy  Scouts, 
the  Literary  Society,  and  the  Choral  Union,  furnish 
enough  variety  of  object  and  organization  to  form 
the  main  theme  of  the  chapter. 

159 


160  The  Making  of  a  Town 

It  may  be  conceded  at  the  outset  that  without  an 
organization  no  real  results  can  be  secured.  The 
commercial  club  is  supposed  to  promote  publicity. 
To  do  this  as  well  as  other  things  it  is  essential  that 
the  organization  plan  should  be  well  thought  out,  a 
paid  secretary  employed  and  enthusiastic  committees 
appointed  from  the  club's  membership.  In  towns 
where  miscellaneous  committees  appointed  at  the 
town  meeting  have  been  relied  upon  to  care  for  the 
municipal  interests,  little  gain  has  been  made  from 
one  year  to  another  because  of  the  lack  of  continuity 
and  careful  direction  of  the  enterprises  under  con- 
sideration. Usually  business  and  professional  men 
are  willing  to  cooperate  in  any  movement  for  the 
promotion  of  their  town,  but  such  a  movement  is 
productive  of  real  results  only  when  the  strength, 
intelligence  and  good  citizenship  of  a  community  are 
united  in  the  organization.  If  it  is  proposed  that 
the  organization  shall  be  carried  on  by  the  giving  of 
bits  of  time  by  many  men  to  the  work  of  the  office  of 
director,  little  unity  is  developed  in  the  plan  and  the 
continuation  of  the  work  is  constantly  interrupted. 
This  means  that  the  services  of  a  paid  secretary  must 
be  secured  at  the  outset.  It  hardly  seems  necessary 


Organizations  161 


to  say  that  no  paid  secretary  could  do  all  of  the  work, 
but  he  must  be  a  sort  of  go-between  man,  keeping 
committees  up  to  the  performance  of  their  duties, 
furnishing  them  with  facilities,  and  acting  as  a  kind 
of  general  factotum  for  the  different  groups. 

The  selection  of  committees  for  the  different  types 
of  work  to  be  carried  on  by  the  club  is  not  an  easy 
matter.  One  plan  that  has  been  tried  successfully 
is  to  call  upon  the  members  to  make  suggestions  of 
names  for  the  different  committees,  designating  care- 
fully that  these  men  should  be  selected  on  the  basis  of 
their  energy,  enthusiasm,  judgment,  public  spirit, 
knowledge,  cooperative  willingness  and  business  suc- 
cess. When  the  names  that  have  been  turned  in  have 
been  tabulated,  the  officers  are  in  position  to  make  a 
selection  of  names  for  the  committees  that  success- 
fully carry  out  work  assigned  to  them.  The  club 
being  a  working  organization  rather  than  a  social 
one,  it  is  essential  that  it  shall  have  funds  and  unity 
and  hearty  support  not  from  a  few,  but  from  all. 
This  means  a  subscription  list  based  upon  what  the 
average  man  can  give  rather  than  what  the  richest 
man  can  do.  The  work  of  the  club  is  likely  to  deal 
with  problems  of  promotion,  of  securing  better  rail- 


162  The  Making  of  a  Town 

road  facilities;  the  looking  after  matters  of  discrim- 
ination in  rates  and  prices  against  the  town ;  the  study 
of  town  conditions;  the  maintaining  of  attractive  city 
parks;  caring  for  streets  and  roadways;  developing 
publicity,  and  sometimes  of  regulating  subscriptions 
for  various  charitable  and  amusement  proposals. 

It  is  often  difficult,  however,  to  get  a  commercial 
club  to  take  a  united  stand  on  moral  questions,  or  to 
engage  heartily  and  actively  in  ridding  of  public 
nuisances.  When  suggestions  in  this  direction  are 
made  the  business  relationships  of  the  members  are 
found  to  be  such  that  some  of  them  are  likely  to 
object  on  the  ground  that  it  will  introduce  disturb- 
ing elements  into  the  club's  policy  and  jeopardize  the 
good  feeling  among  the  membership.  There  is  much 
truth  in  this  view  of  the  matter  for  the  cooperative 
spirit  will  continue  good  so  long  as  it  does  not  in- 
terfere with  business  enterprises.  When  it  does, 
the  club's  actions  will  hardly  be  sufficiently  forceful 
to  get  results  that  are  likely  to  affect  the  situation. 

There  is,  however,  in  some  progressive  towns,  an 
organization  that  takes  up  the  work  of  town  develop- 
ment where  the  commercial  club  leaves  it.  This  or- 
ganization might  be  likened  to  the  devoted  tenders 


Organizations  163 


of  the  sacrificial  fires  in  ancient  times,  for  it  is  en- 
gaged in  maintaining  the  flame  of  enthusiasm  and 
arousing  the  spirit  of  real  citizenship.  Sometimes 
it  is  necessary  in  order  to  know  what  is  the  attitude 
of  the  city  actually  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  upon 
citizens  to  take  a  high  stand  on  the  problems  of 
moral  and  civic  righteousness.  The  civic  league, 
organized,  maintained,  and  guided  by  the  women  of 
the  community,  can  do  a  great  many  things  that  no 
commercial  club  can  do.  They  are  in  a  position 
to  emphasize  the  cleaning  of  the  town,  and  being 
connected  usually  with  no  business  enterprises,  the 
members  are  able  to  bring  the  matter  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  men  of  the  community  without  having 
their  motives  questioned.  Such  an  organization  is 
invaluable,  because  it  develops  continuity  of  purpose 
and  acts  with  an  authority  and  power  that  the  in- 
dividual working  alone  cannot  have  in  the  very  nature 
of  things.  Sometimes  it  is  essential  that  the  city 
government  shall  be  shown  how  a  thing  can  be  ac- 
complished. In  other  words,  having  refused  to  take 
the  initiative,  it  remains  for  a  private  organization  to 
carry  on  the  experiment  Thus,  in  more  than  one 
town  the  playground  has  been  maintained  first  by  the 


164  The  Making  of  a  Town 

civic  league,  and  having  demonstrated  that  it  is  a 
good  thing,  it  is  afterwards  taken  over  by  the  town 
government.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  kinder- 
gartens. In  more  than  one  place,  the  public  school 
authorities  having  refused  to  maintain  a  kinder- 
garten, it  remained  for  a  private  organization  to 
start  it,  gather  the  funds  and  keep  it  going  until  its 
usefulness  could  be  demonstrated.  Indifference  to 
the  curfew  ordinance,  the  lax  way  in  which  parks  are 
policed,  can  be  offset  by  the  vigilance  of  a  committee 
of  the  civic  league.  A  special  league  of  that  kind  can 
bring  to  the  community  lecturers  who  will  present 
some  of  the  most  recent  phases  and  points  of  view 
regarding  municipal  development  which  will  serve 
as  a  good  basis  for  a  propaganda  to  be  carried  on 
later.  Many  instances  might  be  cited  where  an  or- 
ganization of  this  kind,  having  brought  such  a  lec- 
turer into  the  town,  has  been  able,  by  fostering  the 
opinion  and  sentiment  so  developed,  to  lay  a  founda- 
tion for  a  wider  public  opinion  that  later  expressed 
itself  in  favorable  action. 

In  making  these  statements  in  regard  to  the  civic 
league  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  work  of  the 
commercial  club  is  of  any  lesser  value;  but  rather 


Organizations  165 


that  the  very  name  itself  and  the  character  of  the 
work  in  which  it  is  most  interested  of  necessity  cur- 
tail the  usefulness  of  the  commercial  club  in  con- 
nection with  what  might  be  termed  the  higher  phases 
of  town  government  and  growth. 

It  has  been  said  more  than  once  that  the  modern 
town  is  built  for  adults  and  not  for  children,  although 
the  children  are  compelled  to  live  in  them  for  a 
longer  time  than  the  older  people  who  have  estab- 
lished residences  there.  The  consideration  of  the 
abilities  and  power  of  young  people  is  given  small 
place  in  town  development,  and  sometimes,  the  town 
having  failed  entirely  to  recognize  them,  either  in 
school  or  elsewhere,  the  boys  in  the  adolescent  period 
become  an  actual  menace  to  the  public  welfare.  Gen- 
eral Baden-Powell  of  Boer  War  fame,  a  number  of 
years  ago  conceived  the  idea  that  the  boys  of  Eng- 
land ought  to  be  brought  into  patriotic  relationship 
with  their  country,  and  so  he  inaugurated  the  Boy 
Scout  movement.  This  movement  now  brought  to 
America  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy.  The  organization 
hesitates  now  and  then  as  to  the  direction  in  which 
it  is  going,  but  the  purpose  is  a  real  purpose  and 
one  that  can  be  utilized  to  bring  the  boys  into  the 


166  The  Making  of  a  Town 

problem  of  town  development.  If  the  boys  of  the 
town  can  be  brought  together  under  such  a  move- 
ment, with  intelligent  leadership,  they  can  do  many 
things  for  their  town  in  the  way  of  maintaining 
order,  helping  to  keep  the  place  clean  and  maintain- 
ing a  spirit  of  enjoyment  and  comradeship  that  will 
make  for  a  good  town  to  live  in.  The  young  people 
of  our  towns  need  a  natural  outlet,  but  up  to  this  time1 
this  fact  has  scarcely  been  recognized  except  by  cer- 
tain commercial  agencies  that  have  undertaken  to 
coin  money  by  taking  advantage  of  the  love  of  ad- 
venture and  the  need  of  outside  stimulus  through  the 
development  of  questionable  resorts  in  which  they 
may  spend  their  time.  The  organization  of  the  Boy 
Scout  movement  must  come  from  the  outside,  from 
the  older  people.  It  should  be  fostered  by  the 
schools  and  churches  of  the  community,  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  utilize  the  boys  in  helping 
to  build  a  better  town;  first,  by  getting  them  into  the 
right  attitude,  and,  second,  by  using  their  energy 
whenever  practicable,  as  in  the  instance  of  fairs, 
carnivals  or  festival  days.  The  German  people  have 
long  recognized  that  it  is  essential  that  boys  should 
be  given  a  physical  education  and  military  training. 


Organizations  167 


After  he  is  fourteen,  for  three  years  the  German 
boy  is  required  to  attend  a  continuation  school,  if  he 
does  not  go  to  a  gymnasium  or  secondary  school,  and 
after  that  to  enter  the  army  for  a  period  of  from  one 
to  three  years.  In  this  country,  however,  we  have 
no  such  system  of  required  education  after  the  eighth 
grade,  and  many  boys  not  interested  in  the  work  of 
the  earlier  period,  drop  out  of  school  to  drift  from 
job  to  job  and  adventure  to  adventure,  until  work  is 
irksome  and  further  education  is  thought  impossible. 
Then  the  boy  becomes  a  menace,  which  the  Boy  Scout 
organization  tends  to  check  by  utilizing  him  before 
he  has  lost  interest  and  hope.  The  men  of  a  town 
can  do  much  to  help.  The  school  and  church  must 
do  more  in  order  that  the  boy  may  be  a  real  factor 
in  town  development. 

The  commercial  club  counts  its  success  in  the  in- 
crease of  population,  the  enlargement  of  business, 
and  the  growth  of  bank  clearings.  The  women's 
civic  league  enumerates  its  conquests  by  calling  at- 
tention to  what  has  been  done  in  the  establishment 
of  playgrounds,  the  enlargement  of  the  schools,  and 
the  giving  of  valuable  lectures.  But,  after  all,  a  town 
is  to  be  counted  successful  only  when  its  young  men 


1 68  The  Making  of  a  Town 

and  young  women  are  entering  into  useful  occupa- 
tions and  taking  their  places  as  efficient  and  law- 
abiding  citizens.  So  the  Boy  Scout  movement  meets 
two  needs:  First,  in  giving  the  boys  an  opportunity 
to  utilize  their  time  and  energy  to  best  advantage, 
and,  second,  in  giving  the  town  the  advantage  of  the 
young  force  and  ability  which  has  hitherto  been 
neglected. 

Besides  the  organizations  that  have  been  men- 
tioned the  town  should  have  a  choral  society,  con- 
sisting of  members  from  every  class  of  the  popula- 
tion. We  have  not  learned  how  to  sing  in  America. 
We  do  not  yet  appreciate  the  enjoyment  to  be  found 
in  group  singing.  A  choral  society,  intelligently  led, 
can  do  a  great  deal  for  the  betterment  of  a  town, 
and  what  is  more,  a  society  of  that  kind,  giving  a 
concert  once  a  year,  acts  as  a  publicity  factor  that  is 
very  effective  in  bringing  people  from  the  neighbor- 
ing communities  to  the  town.  The  same  is  true  of  a 
live  dramatic  society  whose  offerings  from  time  to 
time  add  much  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  town.  One 
of  the  difficulties  confronting  such  an  organization 
is  how  to  secure  a  coach  capable  of  directing  the  play. 
It  is  worth  observing  that  plans  are  now  under  way 


Organizations  169 


in  several  of  the  state  universities  to  send  dramatic 
coaches  to  communities  so  that  they  can  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  intelligent  direction  that  will  result  in 
good  training  and  in  the  presentation  of  first-class 
plays.  This  element  of  publicity,  looked  at  from  the 
business  point  of  view,  can  be  very  effectively 
utilized. 

One  other  organization  should  be  mentioned  in 
this  connection,  and  that  is  an  organization  based 
upon  the  old  type  of  literary  society.  There  is  to  be 
found  in  every  town  some  desire  for  intellectual  ex- 
pression other  than  that  which  is  furnished  by  the 
public  prints  and  in  ordinary  conversation. 

The  creation  of  a  fortnightly  club,  meeting 
through  some  nine  or  ten  months  of  the  year,  gives 
a  means  for  such  expression,  and  it  also  acts  as  a 
forum  in  which  matters  of  public  interest  can  be  con- 
sidered and  tried  out,  as  it  were,  before  they  are 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  larger  group  of  the 
town.  The  value  of  such  a  club  can  only  be  appre- 
ciated by  those  who  have  seen  one  actually  at  work 
and  the  results  of  the  discussions  that  have  taken 
place  in  them.  Many  a  problem  fails  of  successful 
solution  because  of  inadequate  conception  of  the 


170  The  Making  of  a  Town 

principles  upon  which  it  is  based,  and  the  fortnightly 
club  of  the  community  might  serve  as  a  safety-valve, 
not  only  for  the  opening  up  of  some  important  mat- 
ters of  a  national  and  civic  character,  but  also  for 
providing  a  means  for  arousing  public  opinion  re- 
garding actual  needs  of  the  town. 

Under  the  conditions  existing  in  old-fashioned 
communities,  it  has  been  the  custom  to  turn  over  the 
problem  of  charity  to  individuals,  churches  and  so- 
cieties, without  very  much  question  as  to  what  was 
being  done  or  how  it  was  being  done.  Now  and 
then  some  flagrant  case  of  duplication  of  effort  has 
come  to  the  attention  of  a  few  of  the  observing,  but 
this  ripple  on  the  surface  was  soon  dispelled  and  the 
town  fell  back  into  its  old  way  of  doing  things.  Lit- 
tle by  little  the  communities  are  learning  that  charity 
is  a  part  of  the  municipal  problem  that  cannot  be  del- 
egated to  individuals,  and  what  is  more,  that  there 
must  be  some  care,  coordination  and  continuity  of 
treatment  of  the  poor  if  we  are  to  get  anything  like 
a  satisfactory  result  from  our  charitable  impulses. 
It  has  been  assumed  that  charity  organization  socie- 
ties were  for  large  cities,  but  that  such  organization 
was  unnecessary  in  the  smaller  towns  because  it  was 


Organizations  171 


taken  for  granted  that  every  one  knew  what  was  be- 
ing done.  But  in  towns  of  over  5,000  inhabitants 
there  is  no  question  but  that  an  organization  along 
the  lines  of  the  charity  organization  society,  with  a 
permanent  secretary,  who  may  or  may  not  be  paid, 
would  materially  help  toward  a  better  understanding 
of  the  problems  arising  from  the  social  and  economic 
conditions  existing  in  the  community.  An  organiza- 
tion consisting  of  ten  or  fifteen  directors,  selected  by 
a  larger  group,  could,  by  the  employment  of  a  visit- 
ing nurse,  or  of  a  person  skilled  in  charitable  work, 
bring  about  amazing  results  for  the  good  of  the 
community,  and,  further,  make  an  actual  saving  of 
money.  That,  however,  is  not  the  purpose.  The 
real  object  is  to  stop  wastefulness  of  effort  and  to 
place  those  who  have  found  difficulty  in  adjusting 
themselves  to  conditions  in  the  way  of  actually 
securing  a  healthful  home  atmosphere.  An  asso- 
ciated charities,  then,  with  a  visiting  nurse,  who  can 
go  about  wherever  her  help  is  needed,  should  be 
established  in  every  town  of  any  size,  for  the  reason 
that  there  exists  in  every  such  community  problems 
that  can  only  be  met  by  systematic  effort.  The  com- 
mercial club  assumes  that  it  needs  a  paid  secretary, 


172  The  Making  of  a  Town 

the  civic  league  insists  upon  continuity  of  effort,  and 
certainly  the  work  of  charity  should  be  undertaken 
in  a  continuous  and  helpful  way. 

Whichever  way  one  turns  in  the  consideration  of 
these  problems  which  have  brought  into  existence 
these  numerous  organizations  to  deal  with  them,  he 
is  confronted  by  the  need  of  more  education.  Every- 
where it  is  clearly  seen  that  the  first  condition  for 
the  solution  of  the  problem  is  intelligence.  While  it 
is  true  that  education  cannot  produce  intelligence  as 
such,  it  can  materially  widen  the  horizon  of  the 
view  of  individuals,  so  that  they  can  deal  with  the 
problem  in  a  big,  generous  way.  Consequently,  a 
school  board  must  bear  the  brunt,  after  all,  of  main- 
taining most  of  the  things  that  are  needed  in  the 
town.  A  commercial  club  can  take  care  of  publicity; 
the  civic  league  can  deal  with  some  of  the  problems 
of  street  cleaning,  though  that  is  distinctly  a  munici- 
pal function,  but  the  utilization  of  the  school  plant 
and  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  we  are  doing 
little  enough  in  America  to  bring  about  right  results 
in  our  towns,  the  keeping  of  the  boys  and  girls  alive 
to  their  own  interests,  must  rest  upon  the  school 
system.  The  watchword  of  the  future  will  be, 


Organizations  173 


"Utilize  the  school  plant !"  "Utilize  the  time  of 
the  pupil !  "  And  this  can  be  brought  about  by  the  co- 
operation of  school  officers,  instructors,  the  citizens, 
and  the  town  organizations. 

If  this  chapter  has  any  real  purpose,  it  is  to  point 
out  that  some  organizations  can  take  care  of  some 
of  the  problems ;  that  the  very  existence  of  an  organi- 
zation is  evidence  of  some  sort  of  a  problem;  that 
these  problems  affect  the  growth  of  the  community; 
that  the  attitude  of  indifference  will  leave  us  just 
where  we  were;  that  the  attitude  of  criticism  is 
destructive,  and  that  by  the  bringing  together  of  the 
cooperative  forces  of  the  community  the  people  of 
the  town  may  be  made  a  great  deal  happier,  a  great 
deal  better,  and  a  great  deal  wiser.  When  the  min- 
ister, the  teacher,  the  business  man,  and  the  profes- 
sional man  work  together  through  organization, 
through  town  government,  and  through  the  school 
board  we  shall  have  all  the  forces  which  the  com- 
munity has  at  its  command  actually  engaged  in  the 
betterment  of  the  town. 

This  is  not  a  dream;  it  is  not  an  impossibility;  it 
is  really  the  natural  thing,  and  ought  to  be  done. 
The  time  has  come  when  we  ought  to  give  over  the 


174  The  Making  of  a  Town 

idea  that  there  is  nothing  to  do  because  we  live  in  a 
town,  and  to  accept  the  view  that  there  is  much  to 
do,  because  we  have  come  in  contact  with  a  co- 
operative society  in  which  the  lives  of  all  are  affected 
by  the  views,  the  standards,  and  the  acts  of  all. 


ADVERTISING  THE  TOWN 


CHAPTER  X 

ADVERTISING  THE  TOWN 

IN  these  days  of  periodicals,  newspapers,  and 
illuminated  signs,  it  has  come  to  be  regarded  as 
essential  that  all  classes  of  business,  different  types 
of  enterprises,  and  various  sorts  of  endeavor  must 
present  their  merit  to  the  public  in  order  to  succeed. 
This  statement  holds  good  not  only  of  private  under- 
takings, but  even  municipalities  are  forced  to  present 
their  wares  in  the  public  prints.  While  it  is  true  that 
the  town  governments  seldom  expend  the  money 
raised  by  taxation  for  advertising  purposes,  never- 
theless private  bodies  of  a  semi-public  character  are 
engaged  continually  in  presenting  the  merits,  wholly 
or  in  part,  of  their  different  communities.  Like  the 
price  of  liberty,  publicity  must  be  maintained  at  the 
cost  of  eternal  vigilance ;  and,  once  begun,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  it  shall  be  continued,  not  for  a  short  period 
of  a  few  days  or  weeks,  but  for  several  years,  in 
order  to  secure  any  real  benefit.  Viewed  in  this 

177 


178  The  Making  of  a  Town 

way,  the  question  of  advertising  cannot  be  dismissed 
as  of  no  importance  in  the  consideration  of  town 
problems. 

What  is  the  purpose  in  advertising  a  community? 
Presumably  the  first  object  is  to  bring  together  a 
larger  population  to  live  within  the  confines  of  the 
town;  the  second  purpose  is  to  sell  more  of  the  goods 
and  products  that  are  manufactured  in  the  com- 
munity; and  the  third  is  to  induce  visitors  to  come 
from  abroad  in  order  that  they  may  spend  their  time 
and  their  money  in  the  place. 

What  brings  such  a  population  to  a  town  is  the 
first  question  that  comes  to  the  front  in  an  attempt 
to  analyze  the  purpose  of  advertising.  There  ap- 
pear to  be  two  answers:  First,  that  the  town  shall 
be  a  satisfactory  place  in  which  to  live ;  and,  second, 
that  as  a  prosperous  community  in  which  a  living 
can  be  secured  under  fairly  easy  conditions  there 
will  be  inducements  for  people  to  invest  their  time 
and  money.  Good  water,  proper  sewerage  arrange- 
ments, and  conditions  which  make  for  health  are  the 
first  requirement  for  a  satisfactory  living  place;  the 
second  consists  of  adequate  educational  facilities  in 
the  way  of  schools,  libraries,  museums,  and  art  gal- 


Advertising  the  Town  179 

leries;  and  the  third  an  environment  where  a  high 
regard  for  morals  prevails  and  child  life  is  safe  from 
contaminating  influences.  When  these  fundamentals 
are  provided  in  a  community  that  is  by  nature  attrac- 
tive the  first  condition  for  securing  a  population 
has  been  met. 

Upon  the  second  point,  namely,  a  place  where  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  secure  a  living,  the  answer  is 
by  no  means  so  manifest.  In  this  instance  a  satis- 
factory market  for  products,  the  presence  of  the 
essentials  for  manufacturing  in  the  way  of  power, 
fuel,  material,  and  labor,  all  make,  with  a  fairly 
well-inhabited  territory  roundabout  the  community, 
the  basis  for  an  economic  organization  that  has  pos- 
sibilities of  expansion.  To  bring  visitors  to  the  com- 
munity who  will  spend  their  dollars  during  their 
stay  necessitates  attractions,  which  may  in  part  be 
provided  by  nature,  or  developed  by  the  community 
in  the  form  of  theaters,  exhibitions,  fairs,  carnivals, 
and  such  other  amusement  as  might  from  time  to 
time  be  brought  to  the  town.  If,  then,  there  is  a 
real  basis  for  the  development  of  the  community, 
the  question  of  advertising  becomes  the  necessary 
one  of  letting  the  world  know  what  the  town  has. 


180  The  Making  of  a  Town 

This,  however,  brings  the  reader  to  the  material 
that  has  been  secured  through  the  agency  of  the 
social  survey  referred  to  in  the  opening  chapter  of 
the  book.  Without  knowledge  of  conditions  inac- 
curate statements  may  be  made  and  persons  misled 
to  the  utter  ruin  of  the  town's  reputation  for  hon- 
esty and  fair  dealing.  More  than  that,  real  publicity 
must  rest  upon  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  facts,  for 
argument  cannot  be  based  upon  hypothetical  state- 
ments. 

If  it  is  agreed  by  the  leaders  of  the  community 
that  an  advertising  campaign  shall  be  carried  on, 
some  four  questions  must  be  answered,  if  the  ex- 
periment is  to  result  in  success:  First,  to  whom 
should  the  argument  about  the  town  be  directed;  sec- 
ond, what  arguments  are  most  appealing  and  effect- 
ive to  the  constituency  that  will  be  interested;  third, 
what  methods  are  the  wisest  for  carrying  out  the 
purposes  of  the  campaign;  and,  fourth,  in  what 
form  and  under  what  conditions  should  publications 
be  used?  The  reckless  sending  of  information  to 
all  parts  of  the  country,  through  the  medium  of  lists 
of  persons  purchased  without  inspection  of  the  names 
and  addresses,  will  result  in  disappointment.  One 


Advertising  the  Town  181 

method  of  securing  a  proper  clientele  has  been  that 
of  using  corner  coupons  in  cases  where  magazine 
advertising  has  been  resorted  to.  In  this  way  the 
persons  interested  make  themselves  known  to  the 
committee  in  charge  of  the  campaign,  and  when 
followed  up  by  the  sending  of  special  literature  a 
considerable  percentage  of  bona  fide  inquiries  have 
resulted.  During  the  last  ten  years  some  of  the 
larger  cities  have  resorted  to  magazine  space  for  the 
presentation  of  their  opportunities,  and  in  some 
instances  the  results  have  been  effective,  though  man- 
ufacturers are  reluctant  to  give  publicity  to  any  pro- 
posed change  of  location  since  it  is  likely  to  disturb 
their  credit  and  banking  connections.*  The  smaller 
towns  are  reduced  for  their  publicity  to  the  occa- 
sional presentation  of  articles  in  the  local  news- 
papers and  periodicals.  These  articles  should  deal 
with  the  advantages  of  the  community  and  its  value 
as  a  living  and  business  place.  A  few  communities 
print  monthly  magazines  of  their  own,  paying  for 
them  from  the  funds  of  the  town,  and,  while  adver- 
tisement was  not  the  original  intent,  nevertheless  the 
uniqueness  of  the  plan  has  brought  a  great  deal  of 

*"How  to   Remedy   Defects  of   City  Advertising,"  Printers 
Ink,  January,  1913. 


1 82  The  Making  of  a  Town 

publicity.  Moreover,  such  a  publication  would  likely 
increase  the  interest  of  citizens  in  the  business  and 
government  of  the  town.  The  utilization  of  local 
newspapers  for  advertising  the  town  from  the  pro- 
motion point  of  view  proves  usually  expensive  and 
unsatisfactory,  but  as  a  means  of  circulating  news 
regarding  the  place  much  can  be  done  through  the 
daily  press  to  secure  advantageous  publicity.  The 
newspapers,  however,  will  not  take  the  material  that 
is  commonly  referred  to  as  gratuitous  publicity.  The 
copy  prepared  must  contain  news  interest,  and  such 
material,  if  it  is  to  be  sent  out  regularly,  requires  the 
employment  of  a  person  willing  to  give  his  time 
to  it.  Thus,  in  some  of  the  small  cities  of  the  West, 
towns  of  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  inhabitants, 
skilled  newspaper  men  have  been  employed  to  con- 
duct news  bureaus.  The  advantage  of  such  a  plan  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  all  the  different  towns  of  the 
region  to  which  the  news  service  is  sent  print  the 
name  of  the  town  from  which  the  news  emanates, 
and  as  a  consequence  call  attention  to  what  is  going 
on  at  that  point.  One  difficulty  with  this  plan,  how- 
ever, is  that,  unless  handled  tactfully,  the  papers  of 


Advertising  the  Town  183 

rival  communities  refuse  to  print  the  news  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  advertising  pure  and  simple. 

Besides  these  forms  of  printed  advertising,  there 
is  also  the  possible  utilization  of  illustrated  pamphlets 
dealing  with  specific  phases  of  a  town's  development. 
Such,  for  instance,  as  the  residence  side  of  a  town, 
the  business  side,  the  educational  advantages;  in  fact, 
the  town  as  a  place  to  live.  But  it  is  to  be  said  in 
regard  to  such  pamphlets  that,  unless  well  organized, 
and  still  further  well  printed,  with  good  illustrations, 
they  have  little  or  no  effect.  The  warning  should  be 
made  doubly  emphatic  in  this  connection  that  a 
poorly  printed  booklet  is  likely  to  do  more  harm 
than  good  as  a  means  of  publicity. 

Certain  individual  forms  of  advertising,  individ- 
ual because  the  appeal  and  the  method  of  circulation 
is  through  the  medium  of  persons,  have  been  used  in 
many  towns  from  time  to  time.  The  commonest 
of  these  is  the  wearing  of  a  button  bearing  the  town 
motto  or  some  slogan  concerning  the  town.  These 
buttons  are  usually  presented  on  the  occasion  of  the 
meeting  of  a  convention  and  add  a  certain  element  of 
spice  and  interest  for  a  day  or  two  that  is  probably 


184  The  Making  of  a  Town 

worth  all  that  they  cost.  Yet  they  are  merely 
openers  of  the  question,  and  since  they  give  no  infor- 
mation must  be  followed  up,  if  the  curiosity  excited 
is  to  be  utilized,  through  information  of  more  ex- 
tended character.  Sometimes  signs  are  placed  along 
the  highways,  by  which  the  traveler  is  told  of  the 
advantages  of  the  community.  While  this  method 
of  advertising  has  its  advantages,  nevertheless  its 
possibilities  are  limited,  for  a  sign  soon  grows  old 
and  lacks  the  interest  which  the  printed  forms  of 
advertising  possess. 

Many  towns  maintain  a  public  band,  largely  to 
assist  in  entertaining  the  community  and  to  add  to 
the  jollification  on  special  days  that  are  celebrated. 
Such  a  band,  if  well  trained,  has  a  local  influence  in 
the  matter  of  advertising  that  impresses  visitors  and 
others  who  hear  it  in  different  places  with  the  enter- 
prise of  the  community. 

In  most  places  where  a  town  has  entered  upon  a 
systematic  attempt  to  carry  on  a  plan  of  publicity, 
conventions  and  gatherings  of  all  kinds  are  invited 
to  meet  there.  Inducements  in  the  way  of  halls, 
payment  of  certain  local  expenses,  which  may  vary 
from  that  of  printing  and  postage  up  to  the  assump- 


Advertising  the  Town  185 

tion  of  the  entire  cost,  have  been  extended  with  the 
understanding  that  a  convention  will  bring  people  to 
the  town  who  will  spend  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  there.  Such  advertising  is  really  of  a  selfish 
nature,  as  the  money  that  is  brought  in  is  spent  in 
narrow  channels,  among  hotel-keepers  and  retail 
merchants.  It  is  expected  that  the  theaters,  amuse- 
ment places,  and  notion  dealers  will  gain  during  the 
time  the  visitors  are  in  the  town. 

But  this  is  by  no  means  the  sole  argument  for  a 
convention  policy.  It  is  estimated  that  18,000  con- 
ventions were  held  in  the  United  States  in  a  single 
year.  To  these  meetings  men  from  all  walks  of  life 
came,  giving  the  cities  in  which  the  conventions  as- 
sembled an  opportunity  to  impress  their  important 
advantages  upon  the  visitors.  Ten  years  ago,  so  the 
story  goes,  three  brothers  from  Iowa  attended  a  con- 
vention in  Detroit.  Impressed  with  that  city,  they 
visited  it  again  and  finally  removed  their  plant. 
These  were  the  Packards  and  the  pioneers  in  the  au- 
tomobile business  at  Detroit.  On  a  smaller  scale, 
and  as  a  matter  of  course  less  frequently,  the  town 
has  the  opportunity  to  impress  the  manufacturer, 
who  is  seeking  a  modest  opening  for  his  plant,  with 


1 86  The  Making  of  a  Town 

its  advantages  for  a  successful  business.  The  princi- 
ple whether  the  place  is  large  or  small  is  the  same, 
though  the  details  of  policy  may  differ.  On  this 
point,  a  committee  of  one  of  the  city  organizations 
reported  that  the  following  convention  policy  should 
be  adopted  as  a  basis  for  convention  negotiations: 
(i)  Invite  conventions  for  which  local  bodies  are 
willing  to  take  charge  of  the  entertainment;  (2)  pay 
no  money  as  a  bonus  for  any  convention;  (3)  free 
halls  and  exhibit  rooms  may  be  offered  to  certain 
conventions;  (4)  promise  no  funds  for  entertain- 
ment of  any  convention;  and  (5)  pay  no  expense 
money  to  local  delegates  attending  conventions  in 
other  cities.  The  small  town  cannot  hold  to  all  of 
these  points  and  get  conventions.  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  but  few  local  bodies  that  can  take  charge 
of  entertainment;  free  halls,  in  the  second  place, 
must  be  provided,  and  in  order  to  be  represented  at 
times  the  fifth  point  must  be  given  over,  but  on  the 
second  and  third  points  no  question  can  be  raised  as 
to  their  real  soundness. 

Fairs  and  carnivals  may  be  helpful  in  town  pub- 
licity, or  they  may  be  actually  deterrent  to  the  repu- 
tation of  the  town;  it  depends  upon  the  attitude.  A 


Advertising  the  Town  187 

fair  or  carnival  that  has  an  educational  purpose 
connected  with  it,  and  where  the  object  is  to  carry 
conviction  of  a  definite  kind  to  the  visitors,  may 
result  in  much  good;  but  if  the  carnival  is  given  by 
some  traveling  concern,  which  goes  about  from  place 
to  place,  with  no  care  whatever  for  the  reputation 
of  the  community,  and  only  intent  upon  taking  away 
as  much  money  as  possible,  the  town  may  win  a 
reputation  for  reckless  morals,  and  at  the  same  time 
impress  the  visitors  with  a  lack  of  ideals  and  pur- 
pose. On  the  other  hand,  a  carnival  can  be  made 
a  thing  of  entertainment  and  of  education.  Some- 
thing of  the  history  of  the  town  might  be  presented 
in  tableau  form,  while  the  business  interests  would 
have  an  opportunity  of  presenting  their  different 
claims  to  the  attention  of  the  public  in  booths  and 
tents,  assisted  by  discussions  of  interest  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  region,  together  with  entertainment  in  the 
form  of  games  in  which  all  might  indulge.  Such  an 
event  might  be  made  a  sort  of  home-coming,  which 
would  result  in  far  greater  advantage  to  the  town 
than  could  be  secured  through  the  utilization  of  pro- 
fessional companies.  Here  and  there  towns  have 
won  lasting  fame  by  such  a  program.  Thus  water- 


1 88  The  Making  of  a  Town 

melon  day  at  Rocky  Ford  is  known  far  and  wide, 
and  corn-roast  day  at  Loveland  has  come  in  for  much 
comment.  In  short,  a  town  that  can  develop  an 
annual  festival,  or  a  home-coming  week,  or  a  cele- 
bration of  some  such  type,  and  will  prepare  for  the 
event,  basing  it  on  principles  that  will  give  the  right 
impression,  will  be  engaged  in  really  efficient  pro- 
motion. 

Occasionally  excursions  by  citizens  in  autos  into 
adjoining  territory,  well  advertised  in  advance, 
awakens  the  surrounding  territory  to  a  realization  of 
what  the  town  is,  what  it  is  doing,  and  what  it  has 
to  offer.  Such  an  excursion  must,  however,  be  well 
planned,  so  as  to  have  clearly  in  mind  the  definite 
aim  of  bringing  attention  to  specific  things,  if  it  is 
to  work  out  as  a  publicity  measure.  If  a  town  is 
engaged  in  manufacturing,  an  excursion  of  this 
character  might  be  undertaken  by  train,  and  the 
representatives  of  the  community  descending  upon 
the  villages  roundabout  bring  to  them  a  realization 
of  the  importance  of  their  neighbor  that  could  not 
be  secured  by  the  occasional  visits  of  individuals, 
though  they  carried  banners  and  buttons  announcing 
the  advantages  of  the  town. 


Advertising  the  Town  189 

All  of  these  suggestions  are  in  the  main  either 
amusement  in  character  or  the  advancement  of  the 
interests  of  specific  groups  of  persons.  Once  in  a 
while  a  town  might  hold  a  sort  of  analytical  meeting, 
in  which  the  relations  between  town  and  country 
would  be  considered.  The  best  ways  of  beautifying 
the  town;  how  to  enlarge  the  functions  of  the  schools 
for  the  welfare  of  the  community;  the  problems  of 
sanitation  and  hygiene,  and  other  problems  of  a 
purely  municipal  character  would  come  in  for  con- 
sideration. Well  qualified  speakers  are  to  be  found 
in  the  state  and  at  the  university,  and  these  can  be 
drafted  to  give  advice  and  helpful  suggestions  to  any 
town  looking  for  such  help.  To  make  a  program 
of  that  kind  really  valuable  a  survey  should  be  made 
in  advance,  so  the  speakers  may  fit  their  discussions 
into  the  needs  of  the  town.  In  the  case  of  the  pro- 
gram on  page  190,  that  was  done  with  a  much  bet- 
ter result  than  could  be  secured  by  inflicting  upon  the 
community  a  general  program  prepared  with  other 
ends  in  view.  This  program  was  given  under  the 
title  of  u  Citizens'  Institute  and  by  the  cooperation 
of  the  University  of  the  State  and  the  Commercial 
Club  of  the  Town." 


190  The  Making  of  a  Town 

CITIZENS'  INSTITUTE 

Under  the  Direction  of  the  Lisbon  Commercial   Club  and  the 
Extension  Department  of  the  State  University 

Two  DAYS  —  WEDNESDAY  AND  THURSDAY 

Illustrated  Lectures  on  Public  Health.    Lectures  and  Discussions 

on  City  Improvement,  School  Questions,  Medical  Inspection, 

Public  Amusements  and  Other  Topics.    Free 

Educational  Moving  Pictures  Twice 

Each  Day  at  the  Scenic 

PROGRAM 
WEDNESDAY,  JANUARY  TWENTY-NINTH 

1:30  P.  M.  Scenic  Theater. — Edn-  2 — Health  and  Hygiene  of  Sex — Miss 
cational  Moving  Pictures.  Introduced  Bertha  Erdman — Director  of  Course 
by  brief  talk  on  the  good  and  bad  in  for  Nurses,  University  of  North  Da- 
moving  pictures.  kota.  3 — General  Discussion. 

2:30  P.    M.      Opera   House. — Is  the  4:00   P.    M.      Opera    House. — Men's 

Health  of  School  Children  a  Matter  of  Meeting.      1 — Plain    Facts    that    We 

Public    Concern? — Doctor    Gustave   F.  Ought  to  Know — Doctor  Ruediger. 
Ruediger,    Director    of    State    Public  5:00  P.   M.     Scenic  Theater. — Edu- 

Health  Laboratories.  cational  Moving  Pictures. 

2:45  P.  M.     The  Woman's  Side  of  8:00  P.  M.     Opera  House — The  City 

Farm   Life — Miss    Minnie    J.    Nielson,  as  a   Home  for  Its  People — Professor 

County      Superintendent     of      Barnes  John  M.  Gillette,   Professor  of  Sociol- 

County  and  President  of  State  Feder-  ogy,  University  of  North  Dakota, 
ation  of  Women's  Clubs.  8:45  P.  M.     The  Social  Center  Idea 

3:15  P.   M.     General   Discussion  of  and  Social  Centers  for  Small  Cities — 

questions    of    health    and    sanitation  N.  C.  Abbott,  Field  Organizer  of  Ex- 

\vith   Doctor   Ruediger  in  charge  and  tension    Work,    University    of    North 

Superintendent  Simcox  of  city  schools  Dakota, 
leading.  9:15  P.   M.     General  Discussion  on 

4:00  P.  M.     High  School  Assembly  School   Questions   and    Public   Amuse- 

Room  1 — Practical  work  for  the  club  ments     with     Professor     Gillette     in 

women     of      Lisbon — Miss      Nielson.  charge  and  Miss  Nielson  leading. 

THURSDAY,    JANUARY    THIRTIETH 

Forenoon  conferences  with  Professor  3:30  P.   M.     Lessons   in  Civic  Im- 

Gillette,  Doctor  Ruediger,  Miss  Niel-  proveraent   from   the   Small   Cities   in 

son  and  Miss  Erdman.  Germany — President  Frank  L.  McVey, 

1:30  P.   M.     Scenic  Theater. — Edu-  University  of  North  Dakota, 
cational  Moving  Pictures.  5:00  P.   M.     Scenic  Theater.— Chil- 

2:00    P.     M.       Opera     House. — The  dren's  Meeting.     Educational  Moving 

Town  for  the  Country  and  the  Country  Pictures, 
for  the  Town — Professor  Gillette.  8:00  P.  M.    Opera  House. — What  a 

1-45  P.  M. — The  City's  Interest  in  Town  Government,   Organizations  and 

Public  Health— Doctor   Ruediger.  Clubs    Can    Do    for    a    Community — 

President  McVey. 

All  General  Sessions  at  the  Opera  House       No  Admission  Charged 
Come  Prepared  to  Ask  Questions 


Advertising  the  Town  191 

After  all,  effective  advertising  in  the  long  run 
must  be  based  upon  the  solidity  of  the  community, 
the  honesty  of  its  citizens,  the  character,  and  repu- 
tation, and  business  that  it  carries  on,  the  cleanliness 
of  the  hotel,  the  uprightness  of  the  community  stand- 
ards, the  attractiveness  of  the  entertainment  offered, 
as  well  as  the  general  appearance  of  the  town.  These 
are  the  things  that  really  advertise,  and  all  that 
publicity  can  do  is  to  bring  these  to  the  attention  of 
persons  who  would  be  interested  naturally  in  seek- 
ing such  a  place  as  a  residence  or  as  a  business  cen- 
ter. Such  publicity  as  can  be  brought  about  in  the 
various  ways  mentioned  above  is  desirable  in  so  far 
as  it  is  well  done,  and  the  results  will  be  worth  the 
while  only  so  far  as  intelligence  is  used  and  the 
publicity  started  is  continued  over  a  period  of  time. 


THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  TOWN 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  TOWN 

LOOKING  at  the  town  from  an  historical  view- 
point, we  find  that  it  is  a  consequence  of  the 
separation  of  trade  and  manufactures  from  agricul- 
ture; or,  to  put  it  in  other  words,  a  product  of  the 
division  of  labor.  In  ancient  times  the  self-sufficing 
groups  attempted  to  meet  their  own  needs,  not  only 
in  the  products  of  the  soil,  but  in  the  making  of 
clothing,  furniture,  harnesses,  weapons,  and  tools. 
Only  now  and  then  did  the  overlords  on  the  manors 
in  Europe  call  upon  commerce  to  bring  them  the 
luxuries  of  the  Indies,  for  the  soil-bound  population 
supplied  nearly  everything.  As  time  went  on  indi- 
viduals reached  high  skill  in  specific  lines  of  work, 
and,  instead  of  dividing  their  energies  between  agri- 
culture and  a  craft,  they  came  as  a  matter  of  course 
to  give  all  of  their  efforts  to  the  latter.  The  demand 
for  goods  increasing  with  the  growth  of  population, 
the  artisans  made  their  way  to  various  places  of  con- 

195 


196  The  Making  of  a  Town 

venience  and  gathered  around  them  other  individuals 
who  were  more  or  less  directly  associated  with  the 
work  that  they  were  doing.  In  Europe  the  older 
towns  had  their  origin  in  numerous  instances  in  the 
meetings  at  some  shrine  or  burial-place,  and,  as  the 
feudal  system  developed  into  a  military  force,  the 
population  came  to  be  grouped  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  castles  and  forts  belonging  to  the  feudal  lords, 
partly  for  protection,  partly  for  convenience  of 
barter  and  trade. 

In  America  town  beginnings  had  no  such  pic- 
turesque origin.  Everywhere  the  primitive  agri- 
cultural community  was  in  evidence.  The  members 
first  grouped  together  for  safety,  and  later  on  scat- 
tered as  a  mater  of  convenience  to  the  different 
pieces  of  land  they  were  cultivating.  It  was  essential 
that  artisans  and  tradesmen  should  appear.  These 
located  at  points  of  vantage  on  the  traveled  roads, 
at  the  fording  place  of  a  stream,  or  at  some  break 
in  transportation.  Numerous  examples  of  this  state- 
ment are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country: 
(i)  The  city  of  St.  Paul,  now  grown  to  a  consider- 
able population,  is  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  marked  during  the  thirty  years 


The  Future  of  the  Town  197 

from  1850  the  break  in  the  movement  of  freight 
and  the  transfer  of  goods  from  steamboat  to  the 
Red  River  carts.  New  York,  Duluth,  and  Buffalo, 
as  well  as  other  cities  in  America,  are  now  located 
at  points  where  in  the  earlier  days  it  was  necessary 
to  change  the  form  of  transportation.  Thus,  at  New 
York,  the  ocean  steamer  brought  to  the  land  the 
goods  that  were  to  be  carried  by  train  beyond,  the 
train  brought  to  the  ocean  steamer  the  commodities 
that  were  to  be  transported  to  foreign  shores,  and 
from  this  break  at  the  water's  edge  there  resulted 
the  development  of  a  great  population  that  came 
ultimately  to  be  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits,  in 
banking,  finance,  and  manufacturing.  (2)  As  the 
population  of  the  United  States  has  expanded,  other 
reasons  have  come  to  have  special  force  in  establish- 
ing towns.  The  presence  of  natural  resources,  such 
as  coal,  gas,  and  waterpower  for  manufacturing,  has 
resulted  in  the  location  of  the  city  or  town  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  resources.  Pittsburg  is  prob- 
ably the  best  example  of  this  statement.  (3)  Here 
and  there  is  to  be  found  on  our  streams  falling 
water,  which  has  been  utilized  for  power.  Minne- 
apolis is  an  example  of  such  a  city,  having  had  its 


198  The  Making  of  a  Town 

origin  in  the  waterpower  at  St.  Anthony  Falls.  (4) 
Again,  freight  rates  and  railway  policies  have  deter- 
mined the  location  of  towns  and  affected  their 
growth.  The  regional  basis  of  freight  rates  at  one 
time  placed  the  whole  State  of  Texas  in  a  position 
where  all  towns  were  practically  on  the  same  foot- 
ing so  far  as  long  distance  rates  were  concerned. 
Again,  for  many  years  the  growth  of  cities  in  Iowa 
was  checked  materially  by  the  through  rates  that 
were  granted  to  Omaha  and  not  to  them.  This  atti- 
tude of  the  railways  discriminated  against  the  Iowa 
towns  and  gave  a  marked  advantage  to  the  terminal 
freight  point.  (5)  Besides  these  economic  reasons, 
there  are  certain  strategic  ones,  of  both  a  military 
and  political  character.  Thus  towns  were  located 
because  it  was  desired  to  protect  a  pass  by  a  fort  or 
to  control  a  body  of  water  through  the  strategic 
placing  of  a  military  force.  Some  cities,  however, 
have  been  created  by  political  fiat,  as  in  the  case  of 
Washington,  Ottawa,  Berlin,  and  St.  Petersburg,  all 
of  which  had  their  origin  in  the  establishment  of  a 
town  as  a  capital,  and  their  position  and  place  com- 
mercially were  determined  largely  by  a  political  act 


The  Future  of  the  Town  199 

of  the  government*  (6)  The  greater  number  of 
towns  in  America,  especially  in  the  West,  are,  how- 
ever, nothing  but  located  towns.  The  railroads  hav- 
ing built  their  lines  through  undeveloped  country,  it 
was  part  of  their  function  to  locate  and  establish 
stations  where  freight  and  passengers  might  come 
for  distribution  throughout  the  surrounding  terri- 
tory. In  most  instances  the  process  of  location  has 
been  carried  out  in  a  perfunctory  sort  of  way,  with- 
out much  reference  to  natural  position  or  beauty  of 
location.  An  engineer  in  his  office  at  the  terminal 
station  might  have  located  the  majority  of  the  towns 
as  successfully  as  it  has  been  done  with  nothing 
more  than  a  pair  of  dividers  scaled  for  a  given  dis- 
tance on  the  map.  Later  on  syndicates  were  formed 
which  took  over  the  townsites  from  the  railroad  com- 
panies, and  now  in  these  later  years,  under  the  magic 
of  immigration  managers,  buildings  appear  before 
the  coming  of  the  settlers'  trains,  and  banks,  general 
stores,  lumber  yards,  and  elevators  are  established  to 
meet  the  economic  needs,  fancied  or  real,  of  the 
prospective  dwellers  in  the  village. 

*  Berlin  is  an  evident  exception  to  this  statement,  but  her 
present  prosperity  and  growth  are  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
development  of  canals. 


2OO  The  Making  of  a  Town 

It  is  this  type  of  town  that  is  confronted  by  very 
difficult  problems  in  development,  since  beauty  of 
location  and  often  the  larger  economic  considera- 
tions have  been  overlooked  in  the  placing  of  the 
village.     There  are  scores  of  such  towns  in  every 
state  and  territory.    The  economies  of  wagon  trans- 
portation create  a  circle  beyond  which  it  is  imprac- 
ticable to  carry  grain  or  go  for  supplies.    As  a  con- 
sequence, these  towns  come  to  be  known  as  "  supply 
towns,"    "  elevator  towns,"   "  grain  towns,"   "  cow 
towns,"  in  accordance  with  the  character  of  the  busi- 
ness to  be  done  in  a  given  territory.     Producing 
commodities  necessitates  sales.     Hence,  mercantile 
and  financial  agencies,  as  seen  in  the  elevator  and  the 
bank,  come  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  since  supplies 
must  be  had  for  the  cultivator  of  the  soil,  the  general 
store  soon  lays  its  foundation  and  covers  its  shelves 
with  goods  for  the  purchaser.    Other  wants,  such  as 
repairs  of  machinery,  ironwork  in  sharpening  tools, 
and  woodwork,  must  be  met,  and  if  a  profit  is  ap- 
parent, even  in  the  imagination  of  the  most  san- 
guine, the  manufacturing,  merchandising,  and  finan- 
cing agencies  of  adjoining  territory  are  called  upon 
to  add  another  link  to  their  organization. 


The  Future  of  the  Town  201 

From  everywhere,  from  veritably  the  four  corners 
of  the  earth,  come  the  population  required  to  make 
up  the  dwellers  of  a  new  village.  The  storekeeper 
may  be  a  retired  farmer,  weary  of  outdoor  life,  and 
now  looking  for  an  easier  way  of  adding  to  his 
hoard,  or  he  may  be  some  young  fellow  enthused 
with  the  fame  of  great  merchants,  who,  stocked  by 
a  wholesale  house,  has  gathered  a  hundred  dol- 
lars or  so  to  start  his  venture  in  the  new  community. 
The  banker  is  already  on  the  ground  ere  the  first 
train  arrives,  having  traveled  overland  from  the 
rival  road  some  forty  miles  away.  He  is  in  all 
likelihood  the  representative  of  some  banking  com- 
pany that  has  added  a  new  bank  to  its  string,  and  the 
elevators,  pushing  their  ugly  forms  skyward,  bear 
the  insignia  of  companies  managed  and  owned  in 
one  of  the  large  cities.  The  professional  men  of 
the  town  are  likely  to  be  new  men  just  from  the 
schools,  anxious  to  try  their  acquirements  upon 
client  or  patient,  or  they  may  be  older  men  seeking 
new  openings,  where  competition  is  less  severe  or 
surroundings  pleasanter.  The  schoolmaster  and  his 
assistants  are  the  forerunners  of  a  long  procession 
of  ever-changing  instructors  of  youth.  From  many 


2O2  The  Making  of  a  Town 

schools  and  colleges  they  come,  now  and  then  vitally 
interested  in  the  community,  and  in  some  instances 
enthusiastically  trying  to  leave  some  learning  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  Besides  all  these  are  the  livery 
man,  the  hotel  man,  the  section  foreman,  the  station 
agent,  the  odd  job  man,  and  many  others  who  make 
up  the  roster  of  the  village.  From  many  parts 
of  the  land,  of  many  nationalities,  varying  education, 
training,  experience,  and  point  of  view,  they  come  to 
live  together  in  close  association,  meeting  day  by 
day,  with  the  ultimate  object  of  building  a  town. 

Strongly  contrasted  with  these  new  beginnings  of 
community  life  are  the  older  towns  and  villages, 
started  before  the  days  of  railroads.  These  have 
had  their  heyday  and  are  now  settled  down  to  a 
humdrum  existence,  forgetting  progress,  and  re- 
luctantly putting  forth  any  community  effort  to  bet- 
ter conditions  of  living.  The  slow  falling  of  the 
value  of  property  creates  problems  of  revenue  that 
overshadow  all  questions  of  betterment,  and  the 
hardening  of  social  lines  has  brought  about  a  cleav- 
age in  the  status  of  the  population  that  divides  the 
town  into  social  groups  that  get  on  with  tolerance  of 


The  Future  of  the  Town  203 

each  other,  but  throttle  the  town's  progress  because 
of  the  lack  of  a  common  purpose. 

There  is  another  group,  consisting  of  towns  and 
villages,  that  have  found  an  increasingly  larger  place 
in  the  economic  organization,  and  now  look  forward 
to  changes  in  sewers,  water,  light,  paving,  and  en- 
larged expenditure  upon  community  social  enter- 
prises. The  population  in  such  places  is  actuated  by 
the  common  impulse  to  succeed  and  a  real  interest 
in  the  progress  of  the  region  roundabout.  The  larger 
meaning  of  community  wants  and  needs  is  accepted, 
and  the  philosophy  of  the  new  advertising,  that  wants 
can  be  created  by  opening  the  imagination  to  the 
uses  of  products,  forms  the  basic  principle  of  the 
business  expansion.  Consequently,  merchants  no 
longer  look  upon  a  patron  gained  as  a  patron  lost 
for  their  competitor,  but  understand  that  each  may 
perform  his  work  better  in  the  community  by  the 
specialization  of  effort.  So  the  division  of  labor 
goes  on,  and  even  the  inevitable  social  cleavage  is 
offset  by  the  greater  opportunities  for  amusement 
and  contact  with  the  citizens  of  the  place  in  the 
growth  of  the  town. 

The  observer  of  community  life  has  noticed  that 


204  The  Making  of  a  Town 

it  is  a  far  cry  from  the  scattered  hamlet  to  the  com- 
pact and  dominating  city.  Midway  in  the  process 
of  metropolis  building  is  the  town,  defined  as  larger 
than  a  village,  but  not  a  city.  Various  economic  im- 
pulses, through  the  medium  of  railroad,  local  indus- 
tries, the  securing  of  political  advantages,  and  the 
growth  of  population  have  made  the  hamlet  a  town 
and  aroused  local  spirit,  while  opening  a  roseate 
view  of  future  prospects  to  the  imagination  of  the 
citizen.  It  is  then  that  cow  paths  are  surrendered 
for  walks  and  traffic  in  vehicles  goes  on  the  road- 
way between  curbs.  Voluntary  efforts  for  protec- 
tion of  life  and  property  are  no  longer  considered 
sufficient,  and  the  local  squire  comes  to  be  regarded 
as  an  inadequate  representative  of  the  law.  So  a 
city  charter  is  secured  from  the  state.  In  it  specific 
powers  are  granted  to  the  community,  offices  are 
added  to  the  original  list,  and  the  functions  of  gov- 
ernment are  materially  enlarged.  Originally  but  a 
distributing  center,  where  farmers  came  to  exchange 
their  products  for  the  necessities  of  life,  the  town 
takes  on  industrial,  and  even  commercial,  functions, 
The  blacksmith  shop  disappears  to  reappear  in  the 
course  of  time  as  a  wagonworks,  the  cobbler  is  dis- 


The  Future  of  the  Town  205 

guised  as  a  shoe  manufactory,  and  the  little  grocery 
on  the  corner  in  a  few  years  begins  a  new  career 
as  a  wholesale  house.  Then  it  is  that  a  local  market 
is  created  and  banks  come  to  act  as  the  medium 
through  which  business  is  transacted.  The  place,  in 
fact,  reaches  the  point  of  showing  a  consciousness 
of  its  own  integrity. 

Quite  as  remarkable  as  these  outward  changes  in 
the  town  are  the  more  subtle  ones  to  be  found  by 
the  keen  observer  of  population  and  complexity  of 
life.  Originally  the  people  of  the  hamlet  were  much 
alike  in  ambitions,  possessions,  and  education,  but 
the  growth  of  the  hamlet  into  the  town  has  brought 
marked  differences  in  conditions,  and  social  groups 
come  to  be  distinguished  as  entities  separate  from 
the  general  mass  of  people.  The  possession  of  prop- 
erty marks  one  group,  professional  training  an- 
other; politics  and  church  affiliations  create  cross 
groupings,  until  there  is  a  complexity  of  social  and 
economic  conditions  that  stand  out  in  strong  con- 
trast to  the  simple  hamlet  days.  With  these  changes 
a  far  more  difficult  problem  arises  in  the  building 
of  the  town  and  making  it  what  it  ought  to  be  —  a 
good  place  for  men,  women,  and  children  to  live  in. 


206  The  Making  of  a  Town 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  town  offers  an  immense 
economic  agency  to  stamp  a  new  civilization  upon  the 
people  who  pass  through  its  portals.  In  the  long 
run  the  town  will  prove  itself  an  advance  toward 
higher  and  better  forms  of  social  existence.  It  is 
not  by  decrying  the  town  that  progress  is  to  be  made, 
but  by  raising  the  town  to  a  realization  of  its  place 
as  a  maker  of  standards,  the  creator  and  experi- 
menter with  new  things,  and  then  in  turn  giving  to 
the  country  the  best  the  town  has  in  improvements 
and  opportunities.  Both  go  forward  together,  not 
one  as  against  the  other. 

"The  drift  of  country  population  to  the  towns 
and  cities,  with  their  many  amusements,  indulgence 
in  vices,  and  higher  wages,  is  sapping  the  strength, 
not  only  of  the  English,  but  of  every  white  race." 
"This  flocking  to  the  towns  means  the  ultimate 
destruction  of  the  white  races  if  it  continues  un- 
checked." The  two  statements  just  quoted  are  indic- 
ative of  the  general  attitude  toward  towns  and  the 
feeling  of  apprehension  that  is  everywhere  shared 
by  men  of  some  reputation  as  thinkers.  The  mighty 
flow  of  country  population  into  the  cities  is  looked 


The  Future  of  the  Town  207 

upon  as  an  entirely  modern  phenomenon.  Yet,  go- 
ing back  into  the  history  of  Europe,  there  are  to  be 
found  two  periods  during  which  the  same  phenome- 
non took  place  —  one  during  the  heyday  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  and  the  other  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  Professor  Biicher,  upon  whose 
authority  the  above  statements  are  made,  in  his 
Industrial  Evolution,  fittingly  says:  "Every  transi- 
tional epoch  has  its  inconveniences  and  its  suffer- 
ings; but  the  modern  movement  of  population,  in  so 
far  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  influx  into  the  cities,  will, 
like  that  of  mediaeval  times,  reach  its  goal  and  then 
subside.  This  goal  can  be  none  other  than  to  assign 
to  every  individual  capacity  and  to  every  local  group 
of  persons  that  place  and  role  in  the  great  national 
life  in  which  its  endowments  and  the  altered  techni- 
cal conditions  of  economic  activity  best  fit  it  to  con- 
tribute to  the  general  welfare." 

Viewed  largely,  the  statement  of  the  last  para- 
graph sets  a  great  program  before  the  munici- 
palities of  the  world.  Nearly  four-fifths  of  the 
people  of  Great  Britain  live  in  towns,  while  one- 
half  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  dwell 


ao8  The  Making  of  a  Town 

within  town  boundaries.  In  feudal  times  towns 
meant  protection  from  the  ravages  of  marauders; 
today  they  mean  congested  population  made  up  of 
landless  men,  without  resources  behind  them  to  fall 
back  upon,  who  eagerly  seek  opportunity  and  a 
market  for  their  services.  The  consequent  variations 
in  conditions  of  life  and  livelihood  in  the  town  create 
a  series  of  problems  that  are  beyond  the  power  of 
any  one  individual  to  solve,  and  raise  ever-present 
questions  regarding  health,  education,  protection, 
and  recreation  of  the  inhabitants.  How  to  make  the 
town  a  benefactor  has  come  to  be  a  matter  of  con- 
cern to  municipal  officers,  while  the  municipal  spirit 
seeks  to  widen  the  opportunities  for  real  living.  We 
have  thus  seen  fit  to  designate  the  place  where 
organized  attempts  are  made  to  apply  scientific  and 
economic  principles  to  the  housing  of  people,  their 
education  and  comfort,  and  where  standards  of 
living  are  high,  as  a  Model  Town.  The  phrase 
means  little  or  much,  depending  upon  how  it  is  ap- 
plied, but  it  represents  in  a  word  the  move  toward 
better  things  in  municipal  life.  Betterment  in  these 
matters  cannot  result  except  by  intelligent  community 
action.  So  town  building  today  means  community 


The  Future  of  the  Town  209 

cooperation  as  never  before  and  the  study  of  the 
problem  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  future. 

The  future  town,  when  it  has  come  to  realize  all 
of  its  possible  activities,  will  be,  in  addition  to  the 
agency  of  government  and  director  of  utilities,  a 
patron  of  the  arts.  In  times  gone  by  kings  and 
princes  gave  bonuses  to  gifted  men  and  women  iri 
order  to  help  them  in  their  work  as  artists.  But  in 
a  country  where  there  is  no  privileged  class  the 
towns  and  cities  will  become  the  patrons  of  the 
fine  arts.  Mural  pictures  will  appear  in  the  great 
civic  buildings,  fountains  will  adorn  court  yards,  and 
statues  will  be  found  in  every  park.  The  people  of 
the  town  will  know  art  and  appreciate  it,  because  it 
will  be  a  part  of  their  life;  and  the  town  will  be  the 
patron,  because  it  will  have  larger  funds  at  its  com- 
mand than  any  individual.  With  a  wider  apprecia- 
tion of  what  art  is  and  what  it  can  add  to  life,  it  will 
come  to  be  looked  upon  as  an  essential  thing  and 
not  one  remote  from  the  daily  life  of  the  people. 

Without  question  democracy  is  being  tested  in 
unusual  ways  today,  and  nowhere  more  than  in  the 
city  and  town.  The  problems  of  government  press 
for  solution  everywhere,  and  the  possibility  of  deal- 


2io  The  Making  of  a  Town 

ing  with  these  problems  in  comparatively  small  areas 
is  greater  in  city  and  town  than  anywhere  else.  If 
the  town  cannot  manage  its  business  better  than  the 
state  or  nation,  it  certainly  is  no  argument  for  the 
larger  control  of  business  and  industry  by  a  democ- 
racy scattered  over  a  broader  area.  If  the  town 
cannot  build  and  cannot  carry  on  an  enterprise  with 
efficiency,  it  certainly  cannot  be  argued  that  the 
larger  democracy  can  do  the  bigger  things. 

While  this  statement  is  true,  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged that  the  pressure  upon  democracy  from  forces 
opposed  to  government  by  the  people  is  likewise 
greater  in  a  city  than  elsewhere.  Hence  today  the 
problem  of  good  government  is  not  one  which  inter- 
ests only  the  people  of  the  town,  but  it  interests  the 
people  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  The  working  out 
of  an  efficient  government  by  democracy  in  the  town 
will  be  taken  as  a  hopeful  sign  by  the  people  the 
country  over.  Consequently,  the  man  who  looks 
upon  government  in  town  and  village  as  a  matter 
of  indifference,  and  of  no  special  interest  to  him,  is 
really  taking  the  attitude  that  government  the  coun- 
try over  is  hardly  worth  the  while.  The  call  for  the 
intelligent  patriotism  and  sacrifice  of  men  in  city, 


The  Future  of  the  Town  211 

town,  and  village  is  great  indeed,  and  if  there  can  be 
created  in  these  places  a  real  government,  forceful, 
efficient,  and  wise,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
problem  of  national  government  will  be  solved. 


REFERENCES 

CHAPTER  I 

TOWN    BUILDING  AND   COOPERATION 

Allen,  William  H.,  Efficient  Democracy,  New  York,  1910,  chap- 
ters IV,  VII,  IX,  XIII. 
Calkins,    Raymond,   Substitutes  for  the  Saloon,    Boston,     1901, 

chapters  Ill-XL 
Bourne,  E.,  The  Social  Order  in  an  American  Town,  Atlantic 

Monthly,   February,   1913. 
Gillette,  John    M.,   Constructive   Rural  Sociology.    New   York, 

1913,  chapter   XVIII. 
Daniels,  John,   The  Social  Survey:    Its  Reasons,  Methods  and 

Results,  Conference  of   Charities  and  Corrections,   1910,  pp. 

236-240. 
World  To-day,  The  Small  City  and  the  Survey,  Vol.  21:  pp. 

828-832. 
Zueblin,  Charles,  American  Municipal  Progress,  New  York,  1902. 

CHAPTER  II 
THE   PLANNING   OF  THE  TOWN 

Alden,  Percy,  Democratic  England,  London,   1912,  pp.   165-214. 
Atterbury,   Grosvenor,   Model    Towns    in    America,    Scribners, 

July,  1912. 
Craske,  Harold,  The  Need  for  New  Cities,  Economic  Review, 

Oct.,  1908. 

Howard,  Ebenezer,  Garden  Cities  of  Tomorrow,  London,  1898. 
Howe,  Frederick  C,  The  Garden  Cities  of  England,  Scribners, 

July,  1912. 

Nolan,  John,  Replanning  Small  Cities,  New  York,  1912. 

213 


214  References 


Robinson,  C.  M.,  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities,  New 
York,  1909. 

Sennett,  Garden  Cities  in  Theory  and  Practice,  2  Vols.,  London. 

Sitte,  Camillio,  Der  St'ddtebau  nach  semen  Kustlerischen  Grund- 
satzen,  Wien,  1909. 

Tillson,  George  W.,  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials, 
New  York,  1913. 

Unwin,  Raymond,  Town  Planning  in  Practice,  contains  bibli- 
ography, London,  1909. 

CHAPTER  III 
THE   FIRST   FUNDAMENTAL-HEALTH 

Alvord,  H.  E.,  and  Pearson,  R.  A.,  The  Milk  Supply  of  Two 
Hundred  Cities  and  Towns,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  Bui.,  No.  46,  1903. 

Baker,  M.  N.,  Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation,  New  York, 
1902. 

Baskerville,  Charles,  Municipal  Chemistry,  New  York,  1911. 

Chapin,  C.  V.,  Municipal  Sanitation  in  the  United  States,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  1901. 

Pearson,  R.  A.,  Facts  About  Milk,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Bui., 
No.  42,  1896. 

Roseneau,  M.  J.,  M.  D.,  The  Milk  Question,  Boston,  1913. 

Saville,  Charles,  The  Emscher  Sewerage  District  and  Imhoff 
Tank,  Journal  of  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  July, 
1911. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  SECOND  FUNDAMENTAL— SCHOOLS 

Dressier,  F.  B.,  American  School  Houses,  United  States  Bureau 

of  Education,  Bui.,  1910,  No.  3. 
Hill,  Leonard,  Stuffy  Rooms,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  October, 

1912. 


References  215 


Perry,  Clarence  M.,  The  Wider  Use  of  the  School,  Russell  Sage 

Foundation,  New  York,  1911. 
Sage,    Russell,   Foundation,   A    Comparative  Study    of    School 

Systems  in  the  Forty  Eight  States,  New  York,  1913. 
Scudder,  Vida,  The  Schoolhouse  as  a  Center,  Atlantic  Monthly, 

Vol.  LXXVII. 
Search,  Preston  W.,  The  Larger  High  School,  School  Review, 

April,  1900. 
Search,  Preston  W.,  An  Ideal  School,  New  York,  1901. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  THIRD  FUNDAMENTAL—  MORALS 

Bray,  R.  A.,  The  Town  Child,  London,  1907. 

Calkins,  Raymond,  Substitutes  for  the  Saloon,  Boston,  1901. 

Gillette,  J.  M.,  Constructive  Rural  Sociology,  New  York,  1913, 

chapter  XV. 
Minneapolis,  Vice  Commission  Report,  by  M.  D.  Shulter,  chair- 

man, 1911. 

Puffer,  J.  Adams,  The  Boy  and  His  Gang,  Boston,   1913. 
Richard,   L.   S.,  A   People's  Sunday  Evening,  Survey,  July  24, 

1911. 

Rural  Manhood,  Vol.  II,  pp.  83,  139,  155. 

Rountree,  Joseph,  Taxation  of  the  Liquor  Trade,  London,  1906. 
Woods,  South  End  House,  Boston,  1898. 
Ward,  E.  J.,  Civic  and  Social  Center  Development,  New  York, 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  FOURTH   FUNDAMENTAL—  BUSINESS 

American  Academy  of   Political  and    Social    Science,   Business 

Management  and  Finance,  Vol.  XXV,  No.  I. 
Brand,  E.  A.,  Commercial  Organisations,  Bureau  of  Manufac- 


216  References 


tures,  Dept.  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  S.  P.  Agent,  Series 
No.  60,  1912. 

Gunther,  L.,  Selling  by  Mail,  a  pamphlet,  Chicago,   1907. 

Outlook,  The  Waste  of  Retailing,  Feb.  i,  1913. 

Ross,  E.  A.,  Sin  and  Society,  New  York,  1907. 

Scott,  Walter  Dill,  Increasing  Human  Efficiency  in  Business, 
New  York,  1911. 

Sparling,  S.  E.,  Business  Organisation,  New  York,  1906,  chap- 
ters V-VIII,  X-XII,  XIV. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE   TOWN 

Cravath,  J.  R.,  Practical  Illumination,  New  York,  1907. 
Independent,  Northampton  Municipal  Theater,  June  15,  1905. 
Lane,  J.  E.,  How  to  Make  Money  in  a  Country  Hotel,  Caterer 

Publishing  Co.,  New  York,  1901. 

Outlook,  Northampton  Municipal   Theater,  December  21,   1912. 
Robinson,  C.  M.,  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities,  New 

York,  1909,  chapters  X,  XL 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Allen,  William  H.,  Efficient  Government,  New  York,  1907. 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Commission 
Government  in  American  Cities,  November,  1911  (An  ex- 
haustive discussion). 

Deming,  H.  E.,  The  Government  of  American  Cities,  New 
York,  1909. 

Fairlie,  J.  A.,  Local  Government  in  Towns  and  Villages,  New 
York,  1906. 


References  217 


King,  C.  L.,  The  Regulation  of  Municipal  Utilities,  New  York, 


Oswald,   R.,    The  Real  Problem  of    Commission    Government, 

Popular  Science  Monthly,  Sept.,  1912. 
Wilcox,  Delos  F.,  The  Study  of  City  Government,  New  York, 

1897- 

Wilcox,  Delos  F.,  Municipal  Franchises,  New  York,   1911. 
Woodruff,  C.  R.,  City  Government  by  Commission,  New  York, 

1911. 

CHAPTER  IX 

ORGANIZATIONS  AND  WHAT  THEY  CAN  DO  FOR 
THE  TOWN 

Brand,   E.  A.,  Commercial  Organizations,  Dept.  of    Commerce 

and  Labor,  Bureau  of  Manufactures,  S.   P.   Series,  No.  60, 

1912. 
League  of  Civic  Clubs,  Rochester  Social  Center  and  Civic  Clubs, 

1909. 
Robinson,  C.  M.,  The  Improvement  of  Towns  and  Villages,  New 

York,  1909,  chapter  XV. 
Stern,  Neighborhood  Entertainments. 
Warner,  Charles  G.,  American  Charities,  New  York,  new  edition. 


CHAPTER  X 
ADVERTISING  THE  TOWN 

Martin,  J.  Mac,  Report  to  Minneapolis  Civic  and  Commerce  Asso- 
ciation on  Conventions,  1913. 

Printers  Ink,  How  to  Remedy  Defects  of  City  Advertising,  Jan- 
uary, 1913. 

Scott,  W.  D.,  Psychology  of  Advertising,  New  York,  1908. 

Sparling,  S.  E.,  Business  Organization,  New  York,  1906,  chapter 
XIII. 


2i8  References 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  TOWN. 

Biicher,  Carl,  Industrial  Evolution,  New  York,  1901,  chapter  X. 
Ely,  R.,  The  Coming  City,  New  York,  1902. 
Gladden,   Washington,  Social  Salvation,  New  York,    1902. 
Parsons,  Frank,   The  City  for  the  People,  Philadelphia. 
Small  and  Vincent,  An  Introduction  to  the   Study  of  Society, 

New  York,  1894. 

Stelzle,  Charles,  Christianity's  Storm  Center,  New  York,  1907. 
Strong,  Josiah,  The  Twentieth  Century  City,  New  York,  1898. 
Weber,  A.  F.,  The  Growth  of  Cities  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 

New  York,  1899. 
Williams,  J.  W.,  An  American  Town,  New  York,  1906. 


PERIODICALS 

American  City,  New  York  City. 
American  School  Board  Journal,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
American  Municipalities,  Marshalltown,  Iowa. 
National  Municipal  Review,  Philadelphia. 

Stddtebau,  Der,  Berlin,  publishes  many  plans  of  towns  and  vil- 
lages in  each  issue. 
Survey,  New  York. 

Town  Development  Magazine,  Chicago,  III. 
Western  Municipal  News,  Winnipeg,  Canada. 


INDEX 


Advertising  the  town,  177-191 ; 
purpose  of,  178;  attractions, 
178;  system  in,  180;  meth- 
ods, 181-191 ;  conventions, 
185,  186 

Agricultural  center,  105,  106 

Amusements,  91,  100 

Arts,  patronage  of  the,  209 

Australia,  the  new  capital  of, 
19 

Bigelow,  John,  quoted,  5 

Boston,  6,  7 

Boy   Scouts,   165-168 

Budget  system,  150 

Buildings,  33-35 

Business,  15;  fundamental,  103- 

117;    mail    order,    113,    114; 

country  merchant,   113-116 

Charities,   170 

Charters,   141,  142 

Choral  societies,  168 

Churches,  3,  92 

Civic   League,    163,    164 

Cliques,   an   injury,  2 

Commercial  Club,  160-163,  167, 
172;  secretary  for,  160;  com- 
mittees, 161 

Commission  form,  142-145 

Conventions,  185,  186 


Cooperation  in  town  building, 
essential,  I,  16,  27;  of  the 
home  and  school,  70,  71 ;  of 
business  men,  160;  forces  in 
community,  173 

Dance,   municipal,  99,    100 
Democracy,  test  of,  209,  210 
"Desirable  section,"  effect  of,  4 
Des    Moines    commission    plan 
of  government,  143,  144 

Education,   14;   public   schools, 

61-81 ;    importance   of,    172 
Entrance  to  the  town,  123,  124 
Establishment   of   towns,    196- 
199 

Fairs  and  carnivals,  186,  187 
Factories    for    the    town,    109, 

no 
Finance,    budget    system,    149, 

150;    outline    for,    151,    153; 

providing  for  funds,   153 
Future  of  the  town,  195-211 

Garden  city,  the,  23-25 
Garbage,  disposal  of,  42,  43 
Germany's   planned   cities,   25; 
teaching  hygiene  in  schobls, 
72;  theaters,    130;   education 
of  boys,  166,  167 


219 


22O 


Index 


Get-together  spirit,  value  of,  5 
Giddings,  Prof.,  quoted,  70 
Government,  137-156;  town  an 
agency  for,  137;  must  main- 
tain   utilities,    138;    difficult, 
139;  spirit  of,  141;  kinds  of, 
141,  142;  city  manager,  145; 
a  national  problem,  210;  so- 
lution of,  211 
Grades  in  schools,  73-75 
Gridiron  system  of  laying  out 
towns,  21 

Health,    13,    41-57;    officer,   57 
Home  trade,   106,   107 
Hotels,  125-128;  importance  of, 
126;  cuisine,  127 

Imhoff  tank,  49 

Incinerators  for  garbage  and 
waste,  44,  45 

Individual  interest  and  in- 
fluence, 2,  3 

Industries,  securing,  107-112 

Institutes,  189,  190 

"Know  your  city"  movement,  6 

Land  valuation,  155 
Letchworth,  England,  plan,  22, 

23 
Libraries,  school,  68,  69;  town, 

95,  106 

Lighting,  street,  121-123 
Literary  societies,  169 


Mail  order  business,  113 
Medical  inspection  of  children, 

55,  56,  71 

Milk,  contaminated,  53,  54 
Morals,   14,   in  schools,  71-72; 

town,  85-100 
Mottoes  for  towns,  6,  8 
Municipal  ownership,  147,  148; 

dance,     100;      center,      133; 

dump,  43 

Nolan,  John,  quoted,  37 

Organizations,  what  they  can 
do  for  a  town,  159-174;  sec- 
retary for,  160;  commercial 
club,  160-162,  167;  civic 
league,  163,  164;  Boy  Scouts, 
165-168;  choral  society,  168; 
literary  societies,  169;  chari- 
ties, 170 

Parks,  28,  36,  37;  near  station, 
124;  and  civic  league,  164 

Paving,  32,  33 

"Personal  liberty"  argument, 
85,  86 

Planning  of  the  town,  19-38, 
134;  gridiron  system,  21; 
diagonal,  22;  ring,  22;  in- 
formal, 22;  garden,  23,  24; 
rectangular,  29 

Playgrounds,  77,  167 

Plotting,  20,  21 

Population,  classes  of,  201,  202 

Power,  central  plant,  108 


Index 


221 


Prohibition,  98 

Public  buildings,   132,   133 

Railroads  and  stations,  123-125 
Retardation  of  school  children, 
74-77 

Saloons,  87,  88,  97-99 

Schools,  public,  health  deter- 
minators,  54,  55;  defectives 
in,  55,  56,  71 ;  system,  61-81 ; 
tests  of  town  status,  61 ;  why 
maintain,  62,  80;  location, 
63;  materials  for  building, 
64 ;  types,  64 ;  plans,  65 ;  ven- 
tilation, 66;  seating,  68;  li- 
braries, 68;  as  social  center, 
69;  courses  of  study,  72; 
teachers,  78;  boards,  79 

Schoolhouse,   social  center,  94, 

95 

Sewage,  46,  48 
Sewers,  laying  out,  28;  public 

ownership,  148;  essential,  178 
Social   centers,  99 
Social  evil,  prevention,  90,  91 ; 

segregation,    89,   90 
Social  survey,  8,  9;  outline  for, 

10-12 

Streets,  30,  31 ;  lighting,  122 
Sunday,  observance  of,  91-93 


Survey  of  town,  8,  10-12; 
value  in  advertising,  180 

Tank,  septic  for  sewage,  48-50 

Taxation,  153,  154;  assessor, 
154-156 

Teachers,  school,  78;  salaries, 
78,  79 

Theaters,  128-132;  municipal, 
129-132 

Town,  drifting,  12 ;  survey,  out- 
line of,  10-12;  planning  the, 
19-38;  "wide  open,"  86,  87; 
as  a  center,  105 ;  government 
and  administration,  137-156; 
budget  for,  151-153;  advertis- 
ing, 177-191 ;  the  "model," 
208 

Towns,  origin  and  growth  of, 
195-211;  movement  to,  206, 
207 

Trees,  planting,  31,  32 

Universities,  95,  96 
Ventilation  of  schools,  66 

Waste,  disposal  of,  43-50 
Water,  50;   sources  of  supply, 
51;     filtration,     52;     impor- 
tance,  178 
"Wide  open"  town,  86,  87 


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